This is an ornamental and soil-retaining grass.
This description covers characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology and is not meant for identification. References to aid in the identification of silk reed include the following: [10,20].
Silk reed is a tall, perennial, large-plumed grass [26] that grows in dense clumps from a woody rhizome [20,39]. Stems and flowering stalks may reach a height of 3 to 15 feet (1-5 m) depending on soil and moisture conditions. Each clump produces an average of 40 stalks with 12 to 20 terminal panicles that may be up to 3 feet (1 m) long, each bearing hundreds of flowers [26]. It is not clear how deep silk reed roots penetrate in the soil, though one source reports that roots are "deep" [25].
Fuels: Silk reed has the potential to alter the amount and type of fuels in plant communities where it occurs. It establishes in dense, tall clumps [26] and produces a heavy mat of leaf litter from shed stems and inflorescences [25]. In South Florida slash pine savannas, silk reed grew 3 to 7 feet (1-2 m) above surrounding vegetation. Total plant biomass in areas dominated by silk reed was more than 4 times the biomass of areas lacking silk reed (P=0.01). Litter depth was almost double in areas with silk reed compared to areas without it (P=0.01) [24].
Silk reed also alters the type of fuels available. Silk reed litter facilitates fire spread and movement at the ground's surface. Inflorescences may act as a ladder fuel, allowing fire to spread into tree canopies; one manager reports silk reed ignition during wildfire creating flames >30 feet (9 m) high, threatening nearby tree canopies. Wind may transport flaming silk reed inflorescences, increasing the potential for fire spread [26].
The alteration in quantity and type of fuels in areas with silk reed has led to concern that silk reed establishment leads to uncharacteristically severe fires in pine rocklands [22,26].
FIRE REGIMES: Though it is not known what fire regime silk reed evolved in, it appears to be favored by frequent fire [22,25,26].
Fire exclusion and silk reed establishment have both altered the typical fire regime of pine rocklands. Fire is integral to maintaining pine rocklands; historically, low-severity fires occurred every 3 to 10 years [7], consuming litter and understory vegetation. Fire exclusion has led to the lengthening of fire-return intervals, facilitating hardwood species establishment and litter accumulation. In some areas, pine rocklands are replaced by a tropical hammock plant community within 2 to 3 decades of fire exclusion [37]. In pine rocklands where silk reed establishes, the alteration of fuel characteristics by silk reed has promoted an increase in the frequency and intensity of fires, leading to abnormally high South Florida slash pine mortality [22]. Managers observed 75% mortality of mid-canopy South Florida slash pine following a mixed-severity prescribed fire in a park with dense stands of silk reed [25]. There is also concern that silk reed establishment may alter fire-return intervals and plant community composition in Florida scrub plant communities, ecosystems with longer fire-return intervals than pine rocklands [22]. See the Fire Regime Table for more information on fire regimes of vegetation communities in which silk reed may occur. Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find FIRE REGIMES".
A weed identification guide suggests silk reed tolerates a wide range of soil, light, and water regimes [20]. Several sources report that it prefers open, sunny, dry sites with some disturbance [10,19,20]. In its native range, silk reed is found in bogs and disturbed sites, often growing on infertile soils [36]. In Florida, silk reed establishes in disturbed areas [10,20,25,40] including the edges of roadways, fields, and forests [26], vacant lots [19], and limestone spoil piles [25].
Soils: As of this writing (2010) it is not clear what soil characteristics silk reed prefers. One manager described silk reed as a colonizer of sandy soils [22]. Soils of the pine rocklands where silk reed is invasive are usually moderately well drained, with limestone bedrock at or very near the surface. Soils generally consist of small accumulations of sand, marl, and organic material in depressions and crevices in the rock surface [7].
Silk reed is tolerant of extreme soil conditions. In Hong Kong, it was a dominant of the few plants established on the peripheries of treatment lagoons 2 years after the deposition of a coal ash-seawater slurry. Substrate conditions were alkaline (pH 8.4), saline (2.18 dS/m), contained high levels of heavy metals, and surface temperatures reached 113 °F (45 °C) in summer [6]. One source suggests that silk reed may occur in areas with brackish water in Florida [10].
Elevation: In its native range, silk reed grows from 0 to 6,500 feet (0-1,900 m) [26].
Climate: Silk reed generally occurs in a warm, subtropical climate in its native range, similar to the climate where it occurs in North America. Its ability to survive at high elevations (6,500 feet (1,900 m)) in its native range suggests that it may possess some level of cold tolerance, potentially facilitating its spread farther north in North America [26]. Guala [10] observed that a transplanted silk reed rhizome fragment sprouted, grew rapidly, and set fruit after exposure to a series of light spring frosts followed by a hard frost. After a severe freeze the following December, the aboveground vegetation died but the plant sprouted "vigorously" within 2 months [10].
As of this writing (2010) no information is available regarding the importance of silk reed to wildlife and livestock in North America.
Palatability and/or nutritional value: Silk reed is reported as poisonous to buffalo in Bhutan [26].
Cover value: No information is available on this topic.
Silk reed reproduces vegetatively via rhizomes and by seed [16,26].
Neyraudia reynaudiana, commonly known as Burma reed, silk reed, cane grass, or false reed, is a tall, perennial, large-plumed grass native to subtropical Asia, but invasive in southern Florida in the United States.
The stems of Burma reed, with flower stalks, are from 3 to 15 feet (0.91 to 4.57 m) tall, depending on soil and moisture conditions. The leaves are 8 to 10 inches (20 to 25 cm) long and hairless, except for a single line of horizontal hairs at the juncture of the upper and lower portions of the leaf. Stems are approximately 0.5 inches (1.3 cm) wide, round, solid, and have nodes (stem-leaf junctures) every 3 to 5 inches (7.6 to 12.7 cm) along the stem. The flower plumes, which can be up to 3 feet (0.91 m) long, are composed of many hundreds of tiny flowers and have a shimmery, silky appearance. Flowering occurs in April and October in south Florida, each clump producing an average of forty stalks and twelve to twenty flowering plumes. Burma reed resembles several other tall grasses, including common reed (Phragmites communis), giant reed (Arundo donax), pampas grass (Cortaderia selloana) and sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum).
Burma reed reproduces by seed and through underground stems called rhizomes. Burma reed plants flower twice each year, producing hundreds of thousands of tiny seeds that are dispersed by the wind. New clumps of Burma reed emerge from rhizomes that may be embedded in sand, soil, or rubble.
Burma reed is widely distributed in warm, subtropical habitats in Southeast Asia and Indomalaya, including portions of Japan, southern China, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaya, Myanmar (Burma), Bhutan, Nepal, and eastern India. It occurs in bogs, in open savannahs, on upland cliffs, and along forest and road edges, and from sea level to altitudes of 6,500 feet (2,000 m).
Neyraudia reynaudiana was first introduced into the United States 11 January 1915 (Plant Introduction # 39690 as N. madagascariensis, presented by Mr. C.C. Calder, Royal Botanic Garden) by the U.S. Department of Agriculture South of Miami. There were also later introductions, including one on 17 April 1916 (Plant Introduction # 42529 as N. madagascariensis, presented by Maj. A.T. Gage, Superintendent, Royal Botanic Garden). According to a cryptic annotation on the label, the latter introduction is apparently also the source of sheet 899975 at the US National Herbarium (Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Herbarium code:US) dated Nov. 1916 from Chico, California. Both introductions were originally from Sidpur near Calcutta, India. A letter attached to (US) sheet 1385256, a collection of the species by Paul Weatherwax on 18 April 1927 from along Bay Shore Drive SE of Miami, explains that he had seen it a Chapman Field in 1925. He also states that Mr. Bissett showed him several plants of this at the bamboo farm near Savannah (another USDA facility in Georgia). Sheet 1259803 (US) is his collection from Chapman Field, 2 Nov. 1925, inscribed "Not in cultivation". Another sheet at US has a letter from noted horticulturalist Liberty Hyde Bailey to noted agrostologist Albert Spears Hitchcock on 23 January 1926 attached. In the letter he explains that he took the plant into cultivation at Chapman Field and speculates that it had been released in Coconut Grove where he found it near residences, through dumping of garden waste. Another collection at US, sheet 899980 is a collection by N.M. Bolander from San Francisco, California in 1861 with the inscription: "Collected in front of a Chinese workhouse".
Although the species has been documented in past cultivation in both Highlands and Alachua Counties in FL, and as stated above, in Georgia and California, those plants have apparently not persisted and it is now found throughout southern Florida in Miami-Dade, Broward, Palm Beach, Lee, Collier, Monroe and Hendry counties.
It initially colonizes the margins of roadways, fields, and forests, from which it can spread to undisturbed areas. The ability of Burma reed to survive at high altitudes in its native range indicates a tolerance to cold and the potential for it to spread further north in the U.S. Seeds and rhizomes are also transported inadvertently in limestone rock from infested quarries that is carried by train from Miami-Dade County to concrete manufacturers throughout the southeastern United States. This unintentional movement of Burma reed material may allow it to invade new sites in Florida and adjacent states near limestone distribution centers.
Reports of the related species, Neyraudia arundinacea, in both California and Florida are traceable to mis-identified specimens of Neyraudia reynaudiana. There are no credible records of N. arundinacea in the US.
Burma reed damages native Florida ecosystems by crowding and shading out understory plant species and by creating conditions for extremely hot and destructive wildfires. In southern Florida, in Miami-Dade County, including Everglades National Park, it is a serious threat to the globally imperiled pine rocklands community whose pine canopy was largely destroyed in 1992 by Hurricane Andrew. Burma reed is a highly combustible fuel source because of its high overall plant mass, its large feathery flower plumes, and its production of dense, hay-like leaf litter. This litter enhances fire movement along the ground, while the flower plumes carry the flames high into the air. With the aid of winds, these plumes often detach and fly through the air like torches, providing the potential for additional spread. Photographs of its ignition during a wildfire show flames leaping over 30 feet (9.1 m) high, threatening nearby tree canopies.
Restoration of sites infested with Burma reed requires a long term commitment to ensure effective control and to allow native vegetation to become established. Burma reed's deep roots make mechanical removal an extremely labor-intensive and costly undertaking and causes extensive disturbance to the soil. A more effective management approach involves a combination of cutting or prescribed burning, followed by application of herbicides. After cutting, mowing or burning Burma reed plants down to the ground, a systemic herbicide like glyphosate, mixed with an acidic surfactant, can be applied to prevent new growth. Repeat treatment is likely to be necessary for a couple of years, until seed and rhizome stores are exhausted.
A successful burn of Burma reed reduces the plant's massive stalks to ash, eliminating the cost of vegetation removal. Conveniently, because Burma reed is the first plant to resprout following a fire, it can be sprayed freely with little concern about non-target kills. Burning by itself, whether through prescribed or natural wildfires, may enhance the growth and spread of Burma reed if not followed up with chemical or mechanical control.
In areas where Burma reed is dispersed among desirable native vegetation, individual plants can be cut at the base using a steel blade or string trimmer and the remaining portions sprayed with herbicide to prevent new growth. Resprouts should be treated with a second herbicide application to the new growth. This method requires highly qualified applicators who can target the herbicide to avoid damage to native plants, and may not be cost effective for extensive infestations.
The material in this article was adapted from the public domain information from the Plant Conservation Alliance, Alien Plant Working Group and several other sources including direct observation of specimens at the Smithsonian US National Museum of Natural History.
Neyraudia reynaudiana, commonly known as Burma reed, silk reed, cane grass, or false reed, is a tall, perennial, large-plumed grass native to subtropical Asia, but invasive in southern Florida in the United States.
