Common warthogs are primarily grazers but also feed on roots, berries, bark of young trees, and occassionaly carrion. They are specialized for grazing short grasses by being able to lower themselves close to the ground on their wrist joints, which are calloused and padded. Common warthogs use their snouts and tusks to excavate rhizomes and bulbs. Rhizomes and bulbs may also provide water for common warthogs during periods of drought. Common warthogs eat their own dung and the dung of rhinoceroses, African buffalos, waterbucks, and francolins.
Animal Foods: carrion
Plant Foods: leaves; roots and tubers; wood, bark, or stems; seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit
Other Foods: dung
Primary Diet: omnivore
The predominant predators of common warthogs are lions. Common warthogs avoid nocturnal predators by being active during the day and sheltering in burrows at night. They also use the warning calls of red-billed and yellow-billed oxpeckers to avoid predators. They are fast runners and usually avoid attack by fleeing. Common warthogs change their activity patterns to avoid humans. In areas with human disturbance, warthogs often become more active nocturnaly.
Known Predators:
Common warthogs weigh 50 to 150 kg with females being 15 to 20 percent lighter than males. Head and body length is 900 to 1500 mm. Shoulder height ranges from 635 to 850 mm. Common warthogs have large upper tusks that are 255 to 635 mm long in males and 152 to 255 mm long in females. As their name suggests, warthogs have three pairs of facial warts, comprised of cartilaginous connective tissue. The three types of warts are: 1) the suborbital warts, which may grow as long as 15 cm in males; 2) the preorbital warts, which do not develop as much in females; and 3) the submaxillary warts, which have white bristles.
The head is large with a mane that goes down the spine to the middle of the back. There is sparse hair covering the body. Color is usually black or brown. Tails are long and end with a tuft of hair. Common warthogs do not have subcutaneous fat and the coat is sparse, making them suceptible to extreme environmental temperatures.
Common warthogs can be distinguised from Cape warthogs by the number of incisors. Common warthogs have two upper and four to six lower incisors, in contrast to Cape warthogs, which lack incisors.
Range mass: 50 to 150 kg.
Range length: 900 to 1500 mm.
Sexual Dimorphism: male larger; ornamentation
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry
Researchers in the eastern Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania found the average lifespan of a warthog was 7 to 11 years. Other literature indicates that warthogs may live as long as 18 years.
Infant warthogs are suceptible to both extreme temperatures and predation, which is why the juvenile survival rate is less than 50% in the first year of life. Other common causes of mortality in adult warthogs are predation, human disturbance, hunting, and disease.
Range lifespan
Status: wild: 15 to 18 years.
Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 7 to 11 years.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 20.9 years.
Common warthogs are found in open and wooded savannas, grass-steppes, and semi-deserts in Africa. Common warthogs prefer open areas and avoid rainforest and severe desert. They are found on Kilimanjaro up to an elevation of 3000 m and along coastal regions of Africa. Common warthogs often utlilize formerly wooded areas that have been cleared for pastures.
The distribution of common warthogs is limited by cover, human disturbance, and suitable foraging. Warthogs require areas to cool-off in order to cope with high temperatures. These include wallows. They also require areas in which to stay warm in the evening, such as burrows.
Range elevation: 0 to 3000 m.
Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland
Other Habitat Features: agricultural
Warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) are found outside forested areas in Africa, from Mauritania to Ethiopia and south to Namibia and eastern South Africa.
Biogeographic Regions: ethiopian (Native )
Common warthogs have a mutualistic relationship with birds, such as red-billed and yellow-billed oxpeckers. The birds are able to feed on the parasites carried by common warthogs while the warthogs are able to rid themselves of these pests. It is thought that the rooting of the common warthog aids in plant growth by aerating the soil. They are also prey to lions and leopards.
Ecosystem Impact: soil aeration
Species Used as Host:
Mutualist Species:
Commensal/Parasitic Species:
Common warthogs are valued for their meat, both for local consumption and trade in cities. Common warthogs are easy to hunt and have a potential of increasing population size by 39% annually, which makes them popular on game ranches. Rooting by common warthogs may also help to churn up soil and aerate the land, which in turn aids in plant growth. They are also a source of food for birds, such as red-billed and yellow-billed oxpeckers, that eat parasites off of their bodies.
Positive Impacts: food ; body parts are source of valuable material
Common warthogs are known to cause damage to various crops, such as rice-fields and peanut crops. Cattle ranchers also see common warthogs as competitors for grazing in southern Africa. Common warthogs are suceptible to diseases which may be transmitted to domestic pigs, such as the tick-borne African swine fever virus. They also are a host of the tsetse fly, which can cause African sleeping sickness in humans.
Negative Impacts: injures humans (carries human disease); crop pest; causes or carries domestic animal disease
Currently common warthogs are not a protected species, but many populations are in serious decline due to overhunting in unprotected areas. Wildlife reserves are trying to protect warthogs, but outside of these areas there are no regulations on hunting. Several zoos have tried captive breeding with very little success.
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
Common warthogs have poor eyesight, but their senses of hearing and smell are keen. A common warthogs, when alarmed, run with its tail upright as an alarm for conspecifics. During friendly encounters, common warthogs rub their preorbital glands against each other. Female warthogs use frequent urination to demonstrate their readiness for mating to boars. During fights among conspecifics, the loser typically squeaks and flees and the victor usually leaves the losing individual alone. During fights and mating, warthogs grunt and grind their teeth.
Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Common warthogs have a polygynandrous mating system. Both males and females have many mates. Males do not defend territories, but when females are in estrus ritualized fighting between males does occur. Fighting involves pushing and striking with the head and blunt upper tusks. The more dangerous lower tusks are rarely used, and injuries or fatalities are rare. Adult males are usually solitary and join female groups briefly for mating. Females attract boars by sight and smell by urinating in a hunched position.
Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)
Mating in common warthogs is seasonally dependent. Females usually become fertile 4 to 5 months after the rainy season has ended and give birth during the dry season. Common warthogs are sexually mature at 18 to 20 months, although males do not typically mate until 4 years of age. Common warthogs are recorded to have the longest gestation of all pigs, ranging from 170 to 175 days. Litters range in size from 1 to 7 piglets, with an average of 3 piglets per litter. Piglets are weaned at about 21 weeks of age.
Female P. africanus spend most of their lives in groups called soundings, but prior to giving birth they become solitary. Females give birth in a burrow, which is important in regulating the body temperature of the piglets, since young warthogs can not maintain their own body temperature the first few days of life. Young warthogs spend six to seven weeks in the burrow before venturing out with the mother. Male warthogs do not leave their mother until they are 2 years of age. Female warthogs leave their mother when they are sexually mature, but may return to the sounding later in life.
Breeding interval: Common warthogs breed once yearly.
Breeding season: Common warthogs breed under seasonal climatic conditions associated with rainfall. Mating peaks occur 4 to 5 months after the end of the rains.
Range number of offspring: 1 to 7.
Average number of offspring: 3.
Range gestation period: 170 to 175 days.
Average gestation period: 172 days.
Average weaning age: 21 weeks.
Range time to independence: 18 to 24 months.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 18 to 20 months.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 18 to 20 months.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; viviparous
Average birth mass: 660 g.
Average number of offspring: 3.
Common warthog sows isolate themselves in burrows to give birth, then stay undergroud with the altricial piglets for the first week. Piglets remain in the den for the first 6 to 7 weeks, and the sow returns often to nurse them. Piglets accompany the mother everywhere after the 6 to 7 weeks in the den. They are weened at about six months. Other sows in the sounding may nurse the young if they are closely related. Offspring may stay within the sounding for up to two years. Males do not play a role in parental care.
Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); post-independence association with parents; extended period of juvenile learning
The Common Warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) is found across much of sub-Saharan Africa. Its common name is derived from the three pairs of facial "warts" made of fibrous tissue of different shape and thickness that are evident on the muzzle, along the jaws, and under the eyes (warts and tusks are less developed in females). These structures are also present on the very similar Desert Warthog (P. aethiopicus), although the shape is somewhat different.
Common Warthogs are the only African pigs that are typical open country species, as evidenced by characteristic grazer morphology and behavior. Although they are largely grazers, their diet is not limited to grass, including, for example, roots, fruit, and small mammals, reptles, and birds when available. They are generally limited to various types of savanna grasslands, open bushlands, and woodlands, usually not far from a reliable water source.
Common Warthogs usually trot with the head held high and the back rigid. They are highly diurnal, going underground before dark to sleep in abandoned burrows of Aardvarks (Orycteropus afer) or other animals, often backing in. Humans, Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (Panthera pardus), crocodiles, and hyenas are the main predators, but Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and African Wild Dogs (Lycaon pictus) can take small warthogs. Female warthogs are notoriously fierce in protecting their young. Warthogs have been observed allowing Banded Mongooses (Mungos mungo) and ground hornbills (Bucorvus spp.) to groom them to remove ticks.
Expansion of the Sahel has resulted in the contraction of the Common Warthog's historical range in the north. In the past, rinderpest epidemics took a significant toll on warthog populations in some areas.
(Meijaard et al. 2011 and references therein)
The common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) is a wild member of the pig family (Suidae) found in grassland, savanna, and woodland in sub-Saharan Africa.[1][2] In the past, it was commonly treated as a subspecies of P. aethiopicus, but today that scientific name is restricted to the desert warthog of northern Kenya, Somalia, and eastern Ethiopia.[3]
_female.jpg)
Southern warthog P. a. sundevallii
female, South Africa
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Nolan warthog P. a. africanus
Senegal
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Eritrean warthog P. a. aeliani
Ethiopia
The common warthog is a medium-sized species, with a head-and-body length ranging from 0.9 to 1.5 m (2 ft 11 in to 4 ft 11 in), and shoulder height from 63.5 to 85 cm (25.0 to 33.5 in). Females, at 45 to 75 kg (99 to 165 lb), are smaller and lighter than males, at 60 to 150 kg (130 to 330 lb).[4][5] A warthog is identifiable by the two pairs of tusks protruding from the mouth and curving upwards. The lower pair, which is far shorter than the upper pair, becomes razor-sharp by rubbing against the upper pair every time the mouth is opened and closed. The upper canine teeth can grow to 25.5 cm (10.0 in) long and have a wide elliptical cross section, being about 4.5 cm (1.8 in) deep and 2.5 cm (0.98 in) wide. A tusk will curve 90° or more from the root, and will not lie flat on a table, as it curves somewhat backwards as it grows. The tusks are not used for digging,[6] but are used for combat with other hogs and in defense against predators – the lower set can inflict severe wounds.
Common warthog ivory is taken from the constantly growing canine teeth. The tusks, particularly the upper set, work in much the same way as elephant tusks with all designs scaled down. Tusks are carved predominantly for the tourist trade in eastern and southern Africa.
The head of the common warthog is large, with a mane down the spine to the middle of the back.[4] Sparse hair covers the body. Its color is usually black or brown. Tails are long and end with a tuft of hair. Common warthogs do not have subcutaneous fat and the coat is sparse, making them susceptible to extreme environmental temperatures.[4]
The common warthog is the only pig species that has adapted to grazing and savanna habitats.[7] Its diet is omnivorous, composed of grasses, roots, berries and other fruits, bark, fungi, insects, eggs and carrion.[8] The diet is seasonably variable, depending on availability of different food items. During the wet seasons, warthogs graze[7] on short perennial grasses.[9] During the dry seasons, they subsist on bulbs, rhizomes, and nutritious roots.[7][9]
Warthogs are powerful diggers, using both their snouts and feet. When feeding, they often bend their front feet backwards and move around on the wrists.[10] Calloused pads that protect the wrists during such movement form early in the development of the fetus. Although they can dig their own burrows, they often occupy abandoned burrows of aardvarks[9] and other animals. The common warthog commonly reverses into burrows, with its head facing the opening and ready to burst out if necessary. Common warthogs will wallow in mud to cope with high temperatures and huddle together to cope with low temperatures.[11]
Although capable of fighting (males fight each other during mating season), the common warthog's primary defense is to flee by means of fast sprinting. When threatened, warthogs can run at speeds of up to 48 km/h (30 mph), they will run with their tails sticking up and will enter their dens rear first with tusks facing out.[12] The common warthog's main predators are humans, lions, leopards, cheetahs, crocodiles, wild dogs and hyenas. Birds of prey such as Verreaux's eagle owls and martial eagles sometimes prey on piglets.[13][14] However, a female common warthog will defend her piglets aggressively. On occasion, common warthogs have been observed charging and even wounding large predators. Common warthogs have also been observed allowing banded mongooses and vervet monkeys to groom them to remove ticks.[15]
Common warthogs are not territorial, but instead occupy a home range.[16] Common warthogs live in groups called sounders. Females live in sounders with their young and with other females.[8] Females tend to stay in their natal groups, while males leave, but stay within the home range.[8] Subadult males associate in bachelor groups, but males live alone when they become adults.[7] Adult males only join sounders with estrous females. Warthogs have two facial glands: the tusk gland and the sebaceous gland. Common warthogs of both sexes begin to mark around six to seven months old.[17] Males tend to mark more than females.[17] They mark sleeping and feeding areas and waterholes.[17] Common warthogs use tusk marking for courtship, for antagonistic behaviors, and to establish status.[17]
_suckling.jpg)
Suckling
Etosha National park, Namibia
Female with young
Etosha National park, Namibia
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Young males fighting
Tswalu Kalahari Reserve, South Africa
_young_males_eyeballing.jpg)
Young male kneels to protect throat
Tswalu Kalahari Reserve, South Africa
_juveniles_drinking.jpg)
P. a. africanus juveniles
Senegal
Warthog and Impala at Etosha National Park
Common warthogs are seasonal breeders.[7] Rutting begins in the late rainy or early dry season and birthing begins near the start of the following rainy season.[7] The mating system is described as "overlap promiscuity": the males have ranges overlapping several female ranges, and the daily behavior of the female is unpredictable. Boars employ two mating strategies during the rut. With the "staying tactic", a boar will stay and defend certain females or a resource valuable to them.[18] In the "roaming tactic", boars seek out estrous sows and compete for them.[18] Boars will wait for sows to emerge from their burrows.[7] A dominant boar will displace any other boar that also tries to court his female. When a sow leaves her den, the boar will try to demonstrate his dominance and then follow her before copulation.[7] For the "staying tactic", monogamy, female-defense polygyny, or resource-defense polygyny is promoted, while the "roaming tactic" promotes scramble-competition polygyny.[18]
The typical gestation period is five to six months. When they are about to give birth, sows temporarily leave their families to farrow in a separate hole.[7] The litter is two to eight piglets, with two to four typical. The sow will stay in the burrow for several weeks, nursing her piglets.[7] Common warthog sows have been observed to nurse foster piglets if they lose their own litter.[19] This behavior, known as allosucking, makes them cooperative breeders. Allosucking does not seem to be a case of mistaken identity or milk theft,[19] and may be a sign of kin altruism. Piglets begin grazing at about two to three weeks and are weaned by six months.[7] Piglets quickly attain mobility and stay close to their mothers for defense.[20] Common warthogs live for an average of 7 to 11 years in the wild. Captive specimens on the other hand can live for an average of 21 years. [21]
As of 1999, the common warthog population in southern Africa was estimated to be about 250,000.[22] Typical densities range between 1 and 10 km2 (0.39 and 3.86 sq mi) in protected areas, but local densities of 77 km2 (30 sq mi) were found on short grass in Nakuru National Park.[23] The species is susceptible to drought and hunting (especially with dogs), which may result in localized extinctions.[1] The common warthog is present in numerous protected areas across its extensive range.[1]
In 2020, it has been noted that a population of warthogs, descendants of escaped individuals from game ranches, are running free in southern Texas.[24]
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) The common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) is a wild member of the pig family (Suidae) found in grassland, savanna, and woodland in sub-Saharan Africa. In the past, it was commonly treated as a subspecies of P. aethiopicus, but today that scientific name is restricted to the desert warthog of northern Kenya, Somalia, and eastern Ethiopia.
