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R. raviventris can be distinguished from R. megalotis by its slender, more pointed and more unicolored tail. R. raviventris was once divided into two different species, but is now considered a single species with two subspecies: R. ravivnetris halicoetes and R. r. raviventris.

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Veloz, F. 2002. "Reithrodontomys raviventris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Reithrodontomys_raviventris.html
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Francisco Veloz, Humboldt State University
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Brian Arbogast, Humboldt State University
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Behavior

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Communication in this species has not been documented. However, like most mice, their communication probably involves some combination of visual, accoustic, olfactory, and tactile cues.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

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Veloz, F. 2002. "Reithrodontomys raviventris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Reithrodontomys_raviventris.html
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Francisco Veloz, Humboldt State University
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Conservation Status

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Main reasons for the low population of salt marsh harvest mice is damage of wetlands, habitat destruction, and vegetation changes. Groundwater pumping has been diminishing marsh size in particular areas, while sewage dumping has contaminated others. Much of the marsh land habitat historically used by this species has been diked or drained, and almost all marshes around the San Francisco Bay area are too small and too far apart to support large populations. The extent of habitat fragmentation makes it difficult for this species to breed and recolonize habitat.

In 1972, The San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge was founded, and has protected marshes in the South Bay. The largest of these marshes is Greco Island. California has obtained several areas that supply mouse habitat: Grizzly Island and Joyce Island Wildlife Areas, Hill Slough Wildlife Area, and Peytonia Slough Ecological Reserve. Also, another recovery plan was established in 1984. This plan has aimed to conserve the salt marsh harvest mouse through acquisition of larger marsh areas to combine with existing small isolated ones; altering upper edges of most marshes to provide three species of plants as refuges for mice when they get stressed by flooding.

US Federal List: endangered

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: endangered

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Veloz, F. 2002. "Reithrodontomys raviventris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Reithrodontomys_raviventris.html
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Francisco Veloz, Humboldt State University
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Benefits

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R. raviventris is listed as an endangered species by the US Fish and Wildlife service. In order to protect this species, certain measures must be taken to protect its salt marsh habitat. This sort of protection probably interferes to some extent in human plans to develop, drain, dike, dam, and otherwise modify the salt marshes surrounding San Franscisco Bay. Although preservation of this habitat may not be considered a negative thing by most people, it probably affects some sections of the human economy negatively.

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Veloz, F. 2002. "Reithrodontomys raviventris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Reithrodontomys_raviventris.html
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Francisco Veloz, Humboldt State University
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Benefits

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These mice have little or no positive impact on people. However, they serve as food for animals which humans enjoy watching, such as hawks, owls, egrets, and foxes, so they can be considered to have an indirect positive entertainment value.

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Veloz, F. 2002. "Reithrodontomys raviventris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Reithrodontomys_raviventris.html
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Francisco Veloz, Humboldt State University
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Associations

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These mice do not have high population densities or high rates of reproduction, so it is not likley that they are an important food source for any one species. It is unknown if they play a role in dispersal of seeds.

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Veloz, F. 2002. "Reithrodontomys raviventris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Reithrodontomys_raviventris.html
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Francisco Veloz, Humboldt State University
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Trophic Strategy

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The diet of salt marsh harvest mice seems to consist mainly of salt marsh plants, such as pickle weed. These mice eat a low ration of seeds and insects also. In winter, the diet switches mainly to grasses. In a unique adaptation to its habitat, this species is apparently tolerant of drinking saline water.

Animal Foods: insects

Plant Foods: leaves; seeds, grains, and nuts

Primary Diet: herbivore (Folivore , Granivore , Lignivore)

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Veloz, F. 2002. "Reithrodontomys raviventris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Reithrodontomys_raviventris.html
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Francisco Veloz, Humboldt State University
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Distribution

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Salt-marsh harvest mice (Reithrodontomys raviventris), are limited to saltwater and brackish marshes bordering the San Francisco Bay area. Because these marshes have been altered by humans, throught draining, diking, and similar opperations, the distribution of this species is disjunct. The large Petaluma Marsh (in Sonoma County) supports a considerable amount of salt marsh harvest mice. The species is distributed eastward through Suisun Bay to the opening of the Sacramento River at Antioch Dunies. It reaches western regions through the marshes at the opening of Callinas Creek on the upper Marin Peninsula, and as far south to the San Mateo Bridge; including marshes in the San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )

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Veloz, F. 2002. "Reithrodontomys raviventris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Reithrodontomys_raviventris.html
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Francisco Veloz, Humboldt State University
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Brian Arbogast, Humboldt State University
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Habitat

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Salt-marsh harvest mice inhabit saline or brackish marshes. This species requires dense ground cover. R. raviventris prefers the cover of pickle weed, provided that it has non--submerged, salt-tolerant vegetation for escape during high tides. These mice rarely venture into the open.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial

Wetlands: marsh

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Veloz, F. 2002. "Reithrodontomys raviventris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Reithrodontomys_raviventris.html
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Francisco Veloz, Humboldt State University
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Life Expectancy

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Most live less than 1 year. The longest it has been seen to live in the wild is about 18 months.

Range lifespan
Status: wild:
18 (high) months.

Typical lifespan
Status: wild:
12 (high) months.

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Veloz, F. 2002. "Reithrodontomys raviventris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Reithrodontomys_raviventris.html
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Francisco Veloz, Humboldt State University
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Brian Arbogast, Humboldt State University
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Morphology

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R. raviventris has a dark brown dorsal area with a dark stripe extending vertically on its back, and pinkish cinnamon or tawny on its ventral side. There are often tufts of yellowish hairs near the anterior base of the ears. The ears themselves are dark in color. The tail is indistingly bicolored, with brownish hairs on the surface. Salt marsh harvest mice from the Southern San Francisco Bay area usually have a red belly. Toward the north, many members of the species have a white belly.

R. raviventris has a total length ranging from 118 to 175 mm. Tail length is reported at between 56 and 95 mm. The hindfoot length is 15 to 21 mm. These animals can weight between 7.6 and 14.5 g.

Range mass: 7.6 to 14.5 g.

Average mass: 11.01 g.

Range length: 118 to 175 mm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry

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Veloz, F. 2002. "Reithrodontomys raviventris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Reithrodontomys_raviventris.html
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Francisco Veloz, Humboldt State University
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Associations

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Members of the genus Reithrodontomys are eaten by many predaotrs, inclduing such as hawks, egrets, snakes, and skunks, but also by introduced rats, cats, and red foxes.

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Veloz, F. 2002. "Reithrodontomys raviventris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Reithrodontomys_raviventris.html
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Francisco Veloz, Humboldt State University
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Brian Arbogast, Humboldt State University
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Reproduction

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The mating system of salt marsh harvest mice has not been described. However, a congeneric mouse species, R. megalotis is reported to be polygynous.

Females have a long breeding season that is from March to October or November, but reproductive prospective is low. Males are reproductively active from April to September. The average litter is approximately 4. Usually a female produces only one litter per year, although they are capable of bearing two to three litters per year. This makes these mice quite different from their congener, R. megalotis, which can produce litters just about every month, provided the weather is not too cold.

Gestation periods of the genus Reithrodontomys are 21-24 days.

Occurrance of maturation events, such as eruption of incisors, opening of ear pinnae and eyes, weaning and dispersal are not reported for R. raviventris. However, in R. megalotis, these events are well documented. In this latter species, neonates weigh between 1 and 1.5 g. They are born naked and helpless. They are only 7 to 8 mm in length. They grow hair and begin to crawl by the age of 5 days, and their manidublar incisors begin to emerge through the gums byt his time also. By day 11 or 12, the eyes and ears open. Baby R. megalotis are completely weaned by about 24 days of age, and disperse shortly thereafter.

The timing of such events in R. megalotis may, or may not, be suggestive of the timing of such events in R. raviventris. Because salt marsh harvest mice are quite different from their congeners in their rate of reproduction, they may also be different in timing of developmental events.

Breeding interval: These mice typically breed once annually.

Breeding season: Breeding occurs from March to October or November.

Range number of offspring: 4 (high) .

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization ; viviparous

Reports of parental care in this species are not available. However, young of this genus are altricial, and require care from adults. In all mammals, females care for their young, providing them with milk, with shelter, and with protection until they reach the age of independence. It is not known if males of R. raviventris contribute to parental care.

Parental Investment: no parental involvement; altricial ; pre-fertilization (Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)

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Veloz, F. 2002. "Reithrodontomys raviventris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Reithrodontomys_raviventris.html
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Francisco Veloz, Humboldt State University
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Salt marsh harvest mouse

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The salt-marsh harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys raviventris), also known as the red-bellied harvest mouse, is an endangered rodent endemic to the San Francisco Bay Area salt marshes in California.[4]

Taxonomy

The two distinct subspecies are both endangered and listed together on federal and state endangered-species lists. The northern subspecies (R. r. halicoetes) is lighter in color and inhabits the northern marshes of the bay, and the southern subspecies (R. r. raviventris) lives in the East and South Bay marshes. They are both quite similar in appearance to their congener species, the western harvest mouse, R. megalotis, to which they are not closely related. Genetic studies of the northern subspecies have revealed that the salt-marsh harvest mouse is most closely related to the plains harvest mouse, R. montanus,[5] which occurs now in the Midwest. The endangered designation of the salt-marsh harvest mouse is due to its limited range, historic decline in population and continuing threat of habitat loss due to development encroachment on the perimeter of the San Francisco Bay.

Description and comparison to similar species

The southern population of the salt-marsh harvest mouse tends to have dark brown fur above and a pinkish cinnamon or tawny belly; moreover, the tail is likewise bicolored. An adult's length is 5–7 centimetres (2.0–2.8 in) and a tail length of 6–10 centimetres (2.4–3.9 in). Its height is between 1.5 and 2.1 centimetres (0.59 and 0.83 in). The weight of a mature mouse is about 10–20 grams (0.35–0.71 oz). The northern subspecies is also dorsally brown or reddish brown, but the venters tend to be white or cream, and rarely with a hint of reddish; tail length is usually about 120% of the body length.[6] The upper incisors are grooved. As a member of the Neotominae subfamily, the dental formula of R. raviventris is 1.0.0.31.0.0.3 × 2 = 16.[7]

This species is nocturnal, with particularly noted activity on moonlit nights. This mouse is particularly resourceful, making use of ground runways of other rodents; moreover, it also exhibits climbing agility. It occupies marsh habitats where pickleweed and marsh plants abound. Its many predators include hawk, snake and owl species, as well as shorebirds and larger mammals. Predation by domestic cats is an issue due to encroachment of the limited habitat by humans at the perimeter of the San Francisco Bay.

As would be expected of a mouse native to salt marshes, this species is a competent swimmer and is tolerant of salt in its diet and water supply. It eats seeds and plants, especially pickleweed and glasswort, one of the most common salt marsh plant species.

Similar species are the plains harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys montanus) and the fulvous harvest mouse (R. fulvescens), which has a longer tail. The species co-occurs with the similar western harvest mouse (R. megalotis), which tends to have dorsal fur that is more gray than R. raviventris and with ventral fur that is white to grayish; and the house mouse (Mus musculus), which is gray, has a scaly tail, and incisors without grooves, unlike those of the salt-marsh harvest mouse.

Lifestyle

Survey data from Suisun Marsh found that the salt-marsh harvest mouse can live up to 18 months and possibly longer. Females commonly have two litters per year. In the summer, when salinity of water and vegetation increases, the mice have a notable advantage due to their ability to drink and survive purely on salt water. This adaptation to solely survive on salt water is unknown to many researchers and cannot be investigated due to their endangerment. But, it is thought that the salt marsh harvest mouse has special kidney function that allows this phenomenon.[8] The northern species can survive purely on salt water, but prefers fresh to salt water. The southern species can survive on either, and does not display a preference.[9] Another way to differentiate these species is based on aggression and docility. Often, the salt-marsh harvest mouse is quite docile and less easily agitated than its counter species, the western harvest mouse.[8]

Habitat

The mice depend heavily on vegetation cover, particularly pickleweed and tules (Schoenoplectus spp.). Pickleweed (Salicornia virginica) is their primary and preferred habitat, as well their main food source, but R. raviventris is found in a variety of marsh habitats, including diked and tidal wetlands.[10] Salt-marsh harvest mice are not an aggressive species; many mice live in close quarters, withstanding short durations of high population density due to seasonal flooding that restricts individuals to small patches of dry ground. They can also survive tidal or seasonal flooding due to their superior ability to swim, float and climb.[9] In a 2019 study on the food preferences of the salt-marsh harvest mouse, it was concluded that the species has a much more flexible diet than assumed years prior. They prefer pickleweed only at specific seasonal times, showcased a strong liking for different plants that aren't native to the area, and typical foods enjoyed by waterfowl.[11]

The home range and habitat use of this species differ temporally across age and sex. Juveniles exhibit home ranges of 600–700 square metres (6,500–7,500 sq ft), whereas adults exhibit home ranges of 1,300–1,500 square metres (14,000–16,000 sq ft).[12] Males and females also differ in the structural complexity of their occupied habitat during fall and summer (breeding season), but occupy the same habitat during winter and spring. While the cause is still unknown, this seasonal disparity in habitat use may be related to a reduced risk of predation and intraspecific competition in more structurally complex habitats.[13] Furthermore, movement of R. raviventris individuals within their home ranges varies seasonally, with mean distance traveled highest in June and lowest in November.[14]

Range

The salt-marsh harvest mouse is an endangered species endemic to the San Francisco Bay. Its salt marsh habitat could be highly impacted by sea-level rise.

This organism is known to be found in these specific locales:

Conservation

The salt-marsh harvest mouse has lost much of its habitat to extensive development of bayside marshland, pollution, boat activity, and commercial salt harvesting. It has been on the endangered lists since the 1970s, and has protected habitat within numerous Bay Area wildlife refuges. Individual political jurisdictions have conducted research and established habitat protection strategies to protect the salt marsh harvest mouse. For example, the city of San Rafael, California, has established a shoreline setback standard to prevent any land development within 50 feet of the shoreline; this measure has been applied to several specific land developments along the San Francisco Bay shoreline.[16] Researchers, such as Katherine Smith of California Department of Fish and Wildlife, are at the forefront of research helping to identify how threats like climate change impact the species, while increasing the understanding of its biology, ecology, and behavior.[17][18] NatureServe considers the species Critically Imperiled.[19]

Reference in 2009 economic stimulus debate

The preservation of the salt-marsh harvest mouse habitat was a subject of discussion in 2009 economic stimulus package. The mouse was mentioned numerous times in Congress by Republicans such as Rep. Mike Pence and Rep. Dan Lungren to highlight the wasteful spending of the bill.[20] It was claimed that $30M of the 2009 economic stimulus would be spent on habitat restoration to protect the mouse. The rumor was apparently started by Michael Steel, press secretary for John Boehner.[21][22] This was disputed in a San Francisco Chronicle article by Democratic Rep. Jackie Speier.[23]

References

  1. ^ Whitaker Jr, J.O.; NatureServe (2018). "Reithrodontomys raviventris". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018: e.T19401A22385344. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T19401A22385344.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  2. ^ 35 FR 16047
  3. ^ "Salt-marsh Harvest Mouse". U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
  4. ^ Musser, G. G. and M. D. Carleton. 2005. Superfamily Muroidea. Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder eds. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0.
  5. ^ Presentation by Sarah Brown: Conservation genetics of salt marsh harvest mice (Reithrodontomys raviventris). Presented at College of Science and Math Symposium, California State University, San Luis Obispo. 5/01
  6. ^ Sustaita, Diego; Quickert, Patty Finfrock; Patterson, Laura; Barthman-Thompson, Laureen; Estrella, Sarah (2011). Kuenzi, Amy J. (ed.). "Salt marsh harvest mouse demography and habitat use in the Suisun Marsh, California". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 75 (6): 1498–1507. doi:10.1002/jwmg.187.
  7. ^ Wilson, Don E.; Reeder, DeeAnn M. (2005). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. JHU Press. ISBN 9780801882210.
  8. ^ a b "About the Salt Marsh Harvest Mouse". Salt Marsh Harvest Mouse. Retrieved 22 October 2022.
  9. ^ a b Golovanova, Galina. "The Biogeography of the Salt Marsh Harvest Mouse (Reithrodonomys raviventris)". Geography 316-Biogeography. San Francisco State University. Archived from the original on 16 January 2010.
  10. ^ Sustaita, Diego; Quickert, Patty Finfrock; Patterson, Laura; Barthman-Thompson, Laureen; Estrella, Sarah (1 August 2011). "Salt marsh harvest mouse demography and habitat use in the Suisun Marsh, California". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 75 (6): 1498–1507. doi:10.1002/jwmg.187. ISSN 1937-2817. S2CID 84461021.
  11. ^ Smith, Katherine R.; Kelt, Douglas A. (November 2019). "Waterfowl management and diet of the salt marsh harvest mouse". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 83 (8): 1687–1699. doi:10.1002/jwmg.21752. ISSN 0022-541X.
  12. ^ Geissel, W.; Shellhammer, H.; Harvey, H. T. (29 November 1988). "The Ecology of the Salt-Marsh Harvest Mouse (Reithrodontomys raviventris) in a Diked Salt Marsh". Journal of Mammalogy. 69 (4): 696–703. doi:10.2307/1381624. ISSN 0022-2372. JSTOR 1381624.
  13. ^ Bias, Michael A.; Morrison, Michael L. (1 June 2006). "Habitat Selection of the Salt Marsh Harvest Mouse and Sympatric Rodent Species". Journal of Wildlife Management. 70 (3): 732–742. doi:10.2193/0022-541X(2006)70[732:HSOTSM]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0022-541X.
  14. ^ Bias, Michael A.; Morrison, Michael L. (1999). "Movements and Home Range of Salt Marsh Harvest Mice". The Southwestern Naturalist. 44 (3): 348–353. JSTOR 30055230.
  15. ^ "Threatened & Endangered Animal Species of Point Reyes" (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
  16. ^ Hogan, C. Michael et al. (1989). Spinnaker-on-the-Bay Expanded Initial Study, Earth Metrics Inc., prepared for the city of San Rafael, California
  17. ^ "Researchers seek secrets of Suisun salt marsh harvest mouse". Daily Republic. 24 June 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2017.
  18. ^ "Salt-Water Science up Close". UC Davis. 14 April 2014. Retrieved 20 April 2017.
  19. ^ "Reithrodontomys raviventris.NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 27 April 2023.
  20. ^ "Category:Salt Marsh Harvest Mouse". Metavid.org. Archived from the original on 20 August 2010.
  21. ^ Paul Rogers; Bay Area News Group (13 February 2009). "Bay Area mouse spurs national debate over stimulus bill". The Mercury News. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
  22. ^ Erbe, Bonnie (13 February 2009). "Republicans Flop On Pelosi Mouse Lie, Haven't Learned Environmental Lesson". CBS News. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
  23. ^ Speier, Jackie (14 February 2009). "The myth of the 'San Francisco mouse'". sfgate.com. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
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Salt marsh harvest mouse: Brief Summary

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The salt-marsh harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys raviventris), also known as the red-bellied harvest mouse, is an endangered rodent endemic to the San Francisco Bay Area salt marshes in California.

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