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Description

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Vomerine teeth present. Posterior part of the tongue free and forked. Toes webbed. Omosternum and sternum ossified. Pupil of the eye horizontal. Body chunky (corpulent); snout rounded. Male with internal vocal sacs. Shin shorter than body by 1.76-2.0 times. When the shins are positioned perpendicularly to the body axis, the heels overlap. When the hind leg is stretched along the body, the tibio-tarsal articulation commonly reaches the eye. Inner metatarsal tubercle shorter than the 1st toe by 2.2-4.4 times. Dorsal coloration grey-brown, brown, olive-brown, olive, grey, yellowish or rufous. Chevron-shaped (^) dark glandular spot on the neck. Small dark spots on the dorsal and lateral surfaces. Temporal spot large. Light middorsal band usually absent. If present, this band is unclear and does not reach the middle part of the head. Flank and thigh skin often granular. Belly and hind legs white from below, yellowish or greyish with blotched-like pattern formed by brown, brownish-grey or almost black spots. Male differs from female by having nuptial pads on the first finger, paired vocal sacs and, during the breeding season, a bluish throat. During the breeding season, the male is light and greyish, whereas the female is more brownish or even rufous.This species was featured as News of the Week on 17 August 2020:The pathogenic amphibian fungus known as Bsal (Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans) may be the most potent amphibian disease and poses extreme risk to natural populations, especially in salamanders. First detected in Fire Salamanders (Salamandra salamandra) in extreme southeastern Netherlands and adjacent Belgium and reported in 2013, it has spread to western Germany (with new reports from Bavaria), where it is having devastating effects. An entire issue of the journal Salamandra (2020, vol 56, issue 3, open access and available as PDF) is devoted to Bsal research centered in Germany. Salamander populations have essentially disappeared from the northern Eiffel region and are threatened in the southern Eiffel and Ruhr regions. Bsal has been present in Germany for at least 16 years and has been found in laboratory populations of the Common Frog, Rana temporaria, and field populations of the Great Crested Newt, Triturus cristatus. It is known to infect salamandrid species from southeast Asia, which appear to have been the source of the European outbreaks via pet trade importation. The goal in highlighting this important set of papers as stated by the editors "must go beyond documenting declines towards understanding spatio-temporal disease dynamics and the factors influencing the spread and impact of Bsal in different situations." In light of the seriousness of the Bsal threat in Germany, the authors' common goal is a national Bsal Action Plan, which would be of great importance for the international community of amphibian biologists and for the public (Written by David B. Wake). This species was featured as News of the Week on 26 October 2020: Amphibians of high elevation mountain lakes face many threats: climate change, novel pathogens, development, and overexploitation; however, the presence of non-native fish is the most significant. A study in the Pyrenees (Miró et al 2020) found rapid natural recovery of amphibian communities when non-native fish were removed from eight study lakes and compared them to 56 nearby control lakes with and without fish. The fish-removal lakes achieved natural richness levels one year after fish removal began, and typical species abundances after three years (with the only exception of Rana temporaria). Colonization of removal lakes occurred only from residual populations in the same valley. This study provides another example that montane amphibian communities can recover rapidly after eliminating or reducing non-native fish, and bolsters this technique to help other endangered amphibians in similar habitats (Written by Vance Vredenberg).

References

  • Phillimore, A. B., Hadfield, J. D., Jones, O. R., and Smithers, R. J. (2010). ''Differences in spawning date between populations of common frog reveal local adaptation.'' Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences; published online before print, April 19, 2010, doi: 10.1073/pnas.0913792107 .
  • Terhivuo, J. (1988). ''Phenology of spawning of the Common Frog (Rana temporaria L.) in Finland from 1846 to 1986.'' Annales Zoologici Fennici, 25(2), 165-175.

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Distribution and Habitat

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The frog inhabits Europe from the Pyrenees to the Urals and West Siberia. The species inhabits almost all of western Europe except for Portugal, Central and Southern Spain and Italy, Greece (except for the most northeastern part), Southern Ukraine, and Southern European Russia. Southern margin of the range runs eastwards from Central Moldavia to the south of Ukraine (eastwards approximately along the line Odessa Province - Nikolaev Province - Kirovograd Province - Zaporozhie Province), then northeastwards approximately along the line: center of Dnepropetrovsk Province - Kharkov Province (Kharkov City, 50º00'N, 36º15'E), then in Russia: Byelgorod Province - south of Kursk Province. Then the margin runs eastwards to Voronezh Province, then northeastwards through Tambov Province to Penza and Ulyanovsk provinces, then southeastwards in Samara Province (Samara City: 53º12'N, 50º10'E) and Orenburg Province in the Southern Urals. From there, the frog penetrates Northwestern Kazakhstan (Uralsk Province, Dariinsk Settlement in the middle stretch of the Ural River: ca. 51º10'N, 51º40'E). From Orenburg Province of Russia, the margin rounds the Ural Mountains from the south and runs eastwards to northern Kazakhstan (Kustanai and Kokchetav provinces). At the southern limit of its range, the Common Frog is distributed unevenly and there is a tendency towards decline and extinction of some geographical populations and isolation of others.The northern range limit extends from the southern shore of the Barents Sea and the northern shore of the White Sea. In the Kola Peninsula, the margin corresponds to the Barents Sea coast from the Norwegian border to the area between Kharlovka and Voyatka rivers, then southwards to the northern coast of Kandalaksha Bay. Southeastwards, in Arkhangelsk Province, the margin corresponds to the coast of the White Sea, including the Kanin Peninsula. From the latter, it runs southeastwards and eastwards through Komi Republic in Russia, approximately along the line: lower Shapkina River in Ust-Tsilma District (ca. 67ºN, 53ºE) - Vorkuta City (67º29'N, 64º00'E), then to the Polar Urals, then southwards along the Ob River and the lower Irtysh River, then to Kurgan Province and Northern Kazakhstan (North-Kazakhstan Province, surroundings of Petropavlovsk City: 54º52'N, 69º09'E). It should be noted that the known localities of the Common Frog in West Siberia (east of Sverdlovsk and south of Tyumen provinces) are distributed quite sporadically, so the range margin is poorly known. At least some areas in the southeast of Sverdlovsk Province (adjacent to Tyumen Province) are inhabited by only one brown frog, the Moor Frog (Rana arvalis), and another brown frog, the Siberian Frog (Rana amurensis), is known eastwards. The eastern margin of the distribution of R. temporaria needs elucidation.Rana temporaria inhabits lowland and mountain deciduous, coniferous and mixed forests, through which it penetrates tundra and the forest steppes. In the forest zone, it lives in quite diverse habitats: under forest cover, in glades, bushlands, dry and swampy meadows, swamps and different kinds of anthropogenic landscape (fields, gardens, parks, settlements, cities etc.). In general, in the forest zone, it inhabits quite different landscapes from dry and open areas to overmoistened, dense fir forests. In the northern and southern parts of its range, the frog tends to occur near ponds, lakes and rivers, spending more time in water, a habit typical for this species also in the forest zone in periods of droughts. At the northern limit of its distribution, R. temporaria lives in the forest and true tundras, usually on the shores of permanent lakes. At the southern limit of its range, the frog lives in insular forests in the forest and true steppes, riverside bushlands and plavni (dense riparian vegetation in southern arid regions). In these areas, the species lives only in very moist sites, particularly near the outcrops of ground waters, and behaves as a more hygrophilous species than sympatric R. arvalis. Reproduction and early development occur in the shallow (5-50 cm) waters of lakes, ponds, swamps, ditches, river- and stream pools and puddles with stagnant or semi-flowing water. Aquatic habitats are more diverse in the centre of the species range than on its periphery.
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Life History, Abundance, Activity, and Special Behaviors

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In the center of the forest zone, the Common Frog is usually the most common amphibian. For example, in mixed forests in the centre of European Russia, abundance varies depending on habitat and activity period approximately within the range of 1-250 specimens per 1000 m2. Rana temporaria is common also in agricultural areas and even settlements and cities. In the forests of the center of European Russia, it usually prefers denser parts of forest habitats than the sympatric Moor Frog, and is rarer than the latter in the south, whereas the proportion gradually changes to the north and northwest in favor of R. temporaria. The proportion of the two species varies also by years and in some areas the dominance of one or another species alternates. Density-dependent regulation is important in overcrowded tadpole groups, where several hundred individuals per liter sometimes occur, as well as in the dense groups of recently metamorphosed froglets. However, habitat peculiarities and fluctuations in weather and climate appear to be more important in terms of the overall population dynamics. The Common Frog in the European region is probably a less thermophilous species than the sympatric Moor Frog. It frequently occurs in cooler and wetter microhabitats.The frog usually hibernates in water: rivers, channels, ditches, springs, streams and lakes, primarily with a current. In underwater hibernacula, the Common Frog occurs in groups of many, sometimes few thousand individuals. Hibernation occurs from August - November to February - early June, depending on latitude and altitude. Reproduction occurs from March - late June, but generally in April over the main part of its distribution. Amplexus is pectoral (axillary), and it sometimes occurs on land on the way to the breeding pond.The spawn in deposited usually in a large clump containing 670-4500 eggs. Many, sometimes hundreds and more, clumps form large aggregations. The advantages of embryonic development in large aggregations is that it minimizes temperature fluctuations and that it decreases predation potential, especially with regards to small predators, for example, invertebrates and newts, which are less successful in penetrating large aggregations than single clutches. In such masses, the temperature is a little higher than in the surrounding water. These factors lead to an increase in embryonic survival and probably accelerate development. On the other hand, the rate of embryonic development is slower and mortality is higher in the lower parts of the aggregation than in the upper parts because of hypoxia. In this respect, group spawning in shallow sites will be more advantageous than in deep sites.Metamorphosis is completed usually in June - August. Larvae tend to concentrate into large schools in shallow water where their density sometimes reaches 100 individuals per liter. These schools may cover several hundred square meters, and the temperature there may be a little different from that in surrounding water. Crowding effect is typical for such tadpole aggregations, and the sizes of metamorphosed juveniles are variable. Larger juveniles usually metamorphosed first. They have higher survival rates during their first overwintering, which emphasize an advantage of early metamorphosis. Sexual maturity is attained no later than the 3rd year of life; the life span reaches 6 - 8 years, in the Polar Urals even 17 years.The tadpoles consume mainly detritus, algae and higher plants. Animal food is consumed in smaller amounts. Plant and animal food diversity increase during the ontogenesis. At metamorphosis, feeding ceases for a short time after the appearance of the tadpole's forelegs. Recently metamorphosed juveniles primarily eat microarthropods: Acarina, Collembola, small larvae of Diptera. The food spectrum increases in postmetamorphic development. Adults eat mostly terrestrial prey, including Lumbricidae, Gastropoda, Aranei, Insecta etc. Aquatic prey, mainly insects and molluscs, are eaten in the largest amounts in the northern parts of the frog's distribution.From the other hand, R. temporaria, as the another brown frog, R. arvalis, compose an important food component of many vertebrate animals. It is supposed that the dynamics of some mustelids depend on the population number and dynamics of these brown frogs. The helminth composition in R. temporaria is quite similar to that of the related frog, R. arvalis.
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Life History, Abundance, Activity, and Special Behaviors

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The species is generally neither declining, nor threatened. However, isolated peripheral populations may be vulnerable from human influences and deserve special attention or protection. Only in some areas highly transformed by people (destruction of breeding ponds and adjacent terrestrial habitats, especially during urbanization, recreation and the overpasturage of cattle) the populations are declining. In southern regions, the species is rare, but at its northern distribution in Europe it is common. However, in some West European countries (Great Britain, parts of Germany, Switzerland, etc.), the frog declines drastically due to industrial destruction and pollution of habitats (especially ponds and swamps).Phillimore et al. (2010) suggests that projected increases in temperature for Britain (by 2050-2070) may be more than the Rana temporaria can handle, due to local adaptation. Their models predict that first spawning date for populations in southeast Britain will need to advance by about 21-39 days, but genetically influenced plasticity in spawning date may only allow an advance of 5-9 days. Gene flow northward from more southern populations already adapted to higher temperatures could help, but is unlikely due to the barriers of the English Channel and high urbanization.
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Relation to Humans

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Although many kinds of anthropogenic influences (habitat destruction and pollution, recreation, etc.) negatively affect many populations of the Common Frog, it is a species well-adaptable to life in anthropogenic conditions. Some urban populations of this species are fairly large and safe, if suitable habitats are available. Even a high level of exploitation of the frog population for purposes of medicine and education in some sites does not destroy them. Some forms of human activity lead to an increase in the frog's number and their dispersal. For example, the construction of forest rides with numerous artificial holes filled with water. Many frogs are caught for the purposes of education, medicine and science. Along with the Marsh Frog (Rana ridibunda), the Common Frog is the main subject for such collecting. The amount of these two frog species caught in the 1970s - 1980s in the former USSR measured by several tons annually. However, no population declines resulted from this.
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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Maximum longevity: 27 years Observations: An age-related decline in the immune system has been described in the common frog (Plytycz et al. 1995). In the wild, these animals may live up to 14 years (Smirina 1994).
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Conservation Status

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This common species is currently in no danger of extinction, but local populations can be very unstable. Disturbance of breeding ponds, unusually hard freezes, and pollution by herbicides are all known to wipe out the species in a region.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

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Ramos, M. 2001. "Rana temporaria" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Rana_temporaria.html
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Life Cycle

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Development - Life Cycle: metamorphosis

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Ramos, M. 2001. "Rana temporaria" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Rana_temporaria.html
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Benefits

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Rana temporaria are of great importance to humans. They consume insects, which helps control populations of mosquito's and crop-damaging insects. Frogs are also important when it comes to teaching and scientific research. Adult frogs are used to teach students about the anatomy and physiology of vertebrates and help scientist learn about embryonic development. Ecologists monitor frog populations as they reflect the health of the ecosystem as a whole. In addition, frog legs are a delicacy in many parts of Europe. (Mattison 1987)

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Ramos, M. 2001. "Rana temporaria" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Rana_temporaria.html
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Trophic Strategy

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Rana temporaria eats insects, their larvae, wood lice, spiders, snails and worms. They are able to detect worms by smell. Eating habits are greatly influenced by the time of year.

(Duellman and Trueb 1986; Mattison 1993)

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Ramos, M. 2001. "Rana temporaria" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Rana_temporaria.html
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Distribution

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Rana temporaria is a common terrestrial frog in Great Britain, Europe and northwestern Asia. In continental Europe they are referred to as "grass frog" or "brown frog". They are resistant to cold climates and live as far north as the Arctic circle in Scandinavia, farther north than any other amphibian in the region.

(Britannica 1999-2001)

Biogeographic Regions: palearctic (Native )

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Habitat

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Rana temporaria can be found in just about any damp habitat within its range, though they are more common in cooler upland forests and wet meadows. They are the most common frog in mountain lakes.

Terrestrial Biomes: taiga ; forest ; mountains

Aquatic Biomes: lakes and ponds; rivers and streams

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Ramos, M. 2001. "Rana temporaria" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Rana_temporaria.html
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Life Expectancy

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Range lifespan
Status: wild:
14 (high) years.

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Ramos, M. 2001. "Rana temporaria" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Rana_temporaria.html
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Morphology

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Rana temporaria is a small animal that has a squat body and no tail. They have a wide, flat head connected to a short, solid body. The lower segments of the frogs backbone are fused, forming a stiff rod called the urostyle. Their urostyle and their pelvic bones help provide firmness and strength to the rear of the body, which is where the muscles used for jumping attach to the skeleton. Their powerful legs are not only used for jumping but for swimming as well.

They have a brown-black triangular area around their eardrum, and brown shades covering the rest of their body, though there is a lot of variation in color, with gray, olive, even yellow or pink hues as well. Females are typically yellower and may have patches of red on their sides. Males develop blue patches on their back and throat during breeding season. For the most part females tend to be larger than males. The common frog is approximately 7.5-8 cm long. They lack vocal sacs and therefore can only be heard approximately 50 meters away.

(Mattison 1982; Britannica 1999-2001)

Average mass: 22.7 g.

Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; bilateral symmetry

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Ramos, M. 2001. "Rana temporaria" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Rana_temporaria.html
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Reproduction

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Mating is by means of external fertilization and takes place in water. The male climbs on the back of the female and grasps her body with his forelegs. He releases his sperm as she lays her eggs. Once the male mounts a female he will not release her until egg-laying is complete. The eggs are in gelatinous envelopes (about 400 eggs) and are laid in thick groupings. It takes approximately 30-40 days for their eggs to hatch. A relatively cold spring initiates mating behavior and maturation of eggs. During metamorphosis the tadpole grows legs-the hind legs are the first to grow. Its tail is absorbed into its body and it loses its gills and grows lungs. The structure of the digestive system, heart and skeleton change as well.

Rana temporaria breeds in warmer lowlands in February & March and in the north and at high altitudes as late as June. The breeding period is much shorter in this species than in others; in 3 nights these frogs will lay hundreds of eggs.

Key Reproductive Features: gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male:
1095 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female:
1095 days.

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Ramos, M. 2001. "Rana temporaria" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Rana_temporaria.html
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Biology

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Common frogs hibernate through the winter, either at the bottom of ponds (breathing through their skin) or on land under refuges such as compost heaps (5). During the rest of the year they hunt on land on damp nights; they feed on snails, slugs, worms and a range of insects (5). In spring, males arrive at breeding areas before females, and it is thought that individuals return to their natal ponds by following scents (5). There is typically heavy competition amongst males for females, involving much croaking and wrestling. Males grab a female and remain clasped to her body for days or weeks before spawning takes place. All of the frogs in a pond tend to spawn roughly within a few days of each other. The female releases 1000 to 2000 eggs, the male then releases sperm. The eggs are coated in jelly, and are popularly known as 'frogspawn'. After 10-14 days, the tadpoles hatch, becoming free-swimming a few days later, and undergoing metamorphosis into adults 10-15 weeks after hatching. Tadpoles are vulnerable to predation by a range of aquatic creatures, including water beetles, newts and fish (5).
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Conservation

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It is illegal to sell common frogs under the Wildlife and Countryside Act, 1981 (2).
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Description

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Undoubtedly Britain's most well-known amphibian, the common frog is often found in garden ponds (2). They are typically brown or greyish in colour, but some individuals may be yellow or reddish. The flanks are usually yellow, the underside white, and the upper surfaces feature variable blackish markings (5). The large hind legs feature webbed feet; they power strong jumps and an excellent swimming ability, and are covered with dark bands, which provide camouflage (5). Males tend, on average, to be slightly smaller than females, and they can be identified by whitish swellings on the inner digits of the front feet, which support dark pads during the breeding season that allow the male to effectively grasp a female (5).
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Habitat

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Found in a wide range of habitats, and breeds in puddles, ditches, ponds and large lakes as well as urban and rural garden ponds (5). They have even been recorded breeding in running water (5).
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Range

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Found throughout Britain and Ireland (2). Elsewhere, the common frog occurs in most of Europe, with the exception of Portugal, most of Spain, Italy and Greece (4).
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Status

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Protected in Britain under Schedule 5 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act (1981), with respect to sale only (3). Listed under Annex III of the Bern Convention (4).
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Threats

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For several decades up until the 1970s, this frog suffered a serious decline in Britain. Since the increase in popularity of garden ponds, however, it has experienced a welcome recovery. It is not currently threatened, but populations are vulnerable to the destruction and pollution of water bodies (4). Inbreeding in garden ponds caused by isolation is thought to be a serious problem in some areas, leading to reduced immunity and an increase in disease (5).
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Associations

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In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Animal / dung saprobe
Basidiobolus ranarum is saprobic in/on dung or excretions of dung of Rana temporaria

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Brief Summary

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The European common frog is wide-spread throughout Europe. European common frogs grow up to 10 centimeters and can vary in color and spottiness. These frogs live most of their life on land as long as it is a damp environment. During mating season in the winter, they live in open water.
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Common frog

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Male Rana temporaria calling in a garden pond in Jambes, Belgium

The common frog or grass frog (Rana temporaria), also known as the European common frog, European common brown frog, European grass frog, European Holarctic true frog, European pond frog or European brown frog, is a semi-aquatic amphibian of the family Ranidae, found throughout much of Europe as far north as Scandinavia and as far east as the Urals, except for most of the Iberian Peninsula, southern Italy, and the southern Balkans. The farthest west it can be found is Ireland. It is also found in Asia, and eastward to Japan. The nominative, and most common, subspecies Rana temporaria temporaria is a largely terrestrial frog native to Europe. It is distributed throughout northern Europe and can be found in Ireland, the Isle of Lewis and as far east as Japan.[2]

Common frogs metamorphose through three distinct developmental life stages — aquatic larva, terrestrial juvenile, and adult. They have corpulent bodies with a rounded snout, webbed feet and long hind legs adapted for swimming in water and hopping on land. Common frogs are often confused with the common toad (Bufo bufo), but frogs can easily be distinguished as they have longer legs, hop, and have a moist skin, whereas toads crawl and have a dry 'warty' skin. The spawn of the two species also differs, in that frog spawn is laid in clumps and toad spawn is laid in long strings.

There are 3 subspecies of the common frog, R. t. temporaria, R. t. honnorati and R. t. palvipalmata. R. t. temporaria is the most common subspecies of this frog.

Description

The adult common frog has a body length of 6 to 9 centimetres (2.4 to 3.5 in).[3] In addition, its back and flanks vary in colour from olive green[2] to grey-brown, brown, olive brown, grey, yellowish and rufous.[4] However, it can lighten and darken its skin to match its surroundings.[2] Some individuals have more unusual colouration—both black and red individuals have been found in Scotland, and albino frogs have been found with yellow skin and red eyes. During the mating season the male common frog tends to turn greyish-blue (see video below). The average mass is 22.7 g (0.80 oz); the female is usually slightly larger than the male.[2]

Captive common frog tadpoles eating a crushed garden snail
Male during breeding season showing the nuptial pad, white throat and a blue grey hue over the normal black and brown skin

The flanks, limbs and backs are covered with irregular dark blotches[2] and they usually sport a chevron-shaped spot on the back of their neck and a dark spot behind the eye.[4] Unlike other amphibians, common frogs generally lack a mid-dorsal band but, when they have one, it is comparatively faint.[4] In many countries moor frogs have a light dorsal band which easily distinguishes them from common frogs. The underbelly is white or yellow (occasionally more orange in females) and can be speckled with brown or orange.[2] The eyes are brown with transparent horizontal pupils, and they have transparent inner eyelids to protect the eyes while underwater, as well as a 'mask' which covers the eyes and eardrums.[2] Although the common frog has long hind legs compared to the common toad, they are shorter than those of the agile frog with which it shares some of its range. The longer hind legs and fainter colouration of the agile frog are the main features that distinguish the two species.

Males are distinguishable from females as they are smaller and have hard swellings, known as nuptial pads, on the first digits of the forelegs, used for gripping females during mating.[3][2] During the mating season males' throats often turn white, and their overall colour is generally light and greyish, whereas the female is browner, or even red.[4]

These smooth-skinned frogs can grow to an average weight of 22.7 grams and length of seven to ten centimeters (2.8-3.9 in) with colors varying from gray to green, brown, yellow, or red and may be covered in blotches.[5] The underbelly is white or yellow often with speckles.[2]

Habitat and distribution

Outside the breeding season, common frogs live a solitary life in damp places near ponds or marshes or in long grass.[6] They are normally active for much of the year, only hibernating in the coldest months.[4] In the most northern extremities of their range they may be trapped under ice for up to nine months of the year, but recent studies have shown that in these conditions they may be relatively active at temperatures close to freezing.[6] In the British Isles, common frogs typically hibernate from late October to January. They will re-emerge as early as February if conditions are favourable, and migrate to bodies of water such as garden ponds to spawn.[7] Where conditions are harsher, such as in the Alps, they emerge as late as early June. Common frogs hibernate in running waters, muddy burrows, or in layers of decaying leaves and mud at the bottom of ponds or lakes primarily with a current. The oxygen uptake through the skin suffices to sustain the needs of the cold and motionless frogs during hibernation.[2][4][8]

Common frogs are found throughout much of Europe as far north as northern Scandinavia inside the Arctic Circle and as far east as the Urals, except for most of Iberia, Southern Italy, and the southern Balkans. Other areas where the common frog has been introduced include the Isle of Lewis, Shetland, Orkney and the Faroe Islands. It is also found in Asia, and eastward to Japan.[2][9]

The common frog has long been thought to be an entirely introduced species in Ireland,[7] however, genetic analyses suggest that particular populations in the south west of Ireland are indeed indigenous to the country.[10] The authors propose that the Irish frog population is a mixed group that includes native frogs that survived the last glacial period in ice free refugia, natural post-glacial colonizers and recent artificial introductions from Western Europe.[10][11]

Genetic population structure

The common frog is a very widely distributed species, being common all throughout Europe and northwest Asia. The more peripheral subpopulations of common frogs are significantly less in number, as well as less genetically variable. There is a steep genetic decline when approaching the periphery of the common frog's distribution range.[12] Additionally, genetic differentiation of common frog subpopulations tends to decrease in relation to increasing latitude.[12] The colder climates create a strong selective pressure favoring common frog populations able to behaviorally thermoregulate at a high degree.[13]

Conservation

Long-term impact of diseases

Of the many diseases affecting common frogs, one of the most deadly has been the ranavirus, which has been responsible for causing declines in amphibian populations across the world. Two of the main, and most deadly, symptoms caused by Ranavirus towards common frogs are skin ulcerations and hemorrhaging.[14] Mortality rates associated with the disease are very high, in some events it is observed to be over 90%.[14] Deaths caused by Ranavirus occur in all stages of common frog development and are concentrated mostly during the summer months. Overall, common frog populations that have been affected by ranavirus experience consistent and substantial declines in population size.

Impact of urbanization

Due to the widespread nature of Rana temporaria, common frogs can make their homes in both urban and rural environments. However, many of the populations living in urban environments are subject to the detrimental effects of urbanization. The construction of roads and buildings – absolute barriers to migration – has stymied gene flow and drift between urban populations of common frogs, leading to lower levels of genetic diversity in urban common frog populations compared to their rural counterparts.[15] Urban common frog populations also experience higher levels of mortality and developmental abnormality, indicative of forced inbreeding.[15]

However, the common frog is listed as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.[1]

Diet

Juvenile

At metamorphosis, once the tadpole's fore legs have developed, the frog does not feed for a short time. Recently metamorphosed juvenile frog mostly feed on small insects like Collembola (hexapods), Acarina (mites and ticks), and small fly larvae. Rana temporaria tadpoles, however, mostly feed on algae and decomposed plants,[16] but once their hind legs develop, they become carnivorous.[17]

Adults

The common frog takes its place as an unspecialized and opportunistic feeder wherever it is located. In other words, common frogs will consume whatever prey that is most available and easy to capture.[18] This usually means that the common frog feeds by remaining idle and waiting until a suitable prey enters the frog's domain of capture. As a corollary, this also means that the common frog's diet changes depending on the season where the associated prey become the most abundant. In the summer, the common frog's diet mostly consists of adult crane flies and the larvae of butterflies and moths. To a slightly lesser extent, common frogs will feed on woodlice, arachnids, beetles, slugs, snails, and earthworms.[19][16][20][21] In addition, common frogs will typically feed on bigger prey as they become larger. Therefore, newly developed common frogs are limited to smaller insect prey, whereas larger frogs are able to consume a wide range of insects. Common frogs will hide in damp places, such as in the water, during the day, and at night, they will begin searching for food.

Reproduction and mating patterns

Choir of greyish males and a few brownish females still present in a small pond

During the spring the frog's pituitary gland is stimulated by changes in external factors, such as rainfall, day length and temperature, to produce hormones which, in turn, stimulate the production of sex cells - eggs in the females and sperm in the male. The male's nuptial pad also swells and becomes more heavily pigmented.[22] Common frogs breed in shallow, still, fresh water such as ponds, with spawning commencing sometime between March and late June, but generally in April over the main part of their range.[4]

Competition among males

Like its close cousin, the moor frog (R. arvalis), R. Temporaria does not exhibit territoriality which leads to lack of physical fighting among males. During breeding season, male common frogs undergo a period of a few days (less than 10 days) where they display rapid and frenzied breeding behavior,[23] during which the purpose of the male is to quickly find and mate with as many female frogs as possible. Higher rates of mating success in males typically have longer thumbs than single males,[24] which allows them to have a better grip on females.

Mating interactions

Around three years after being born, the common frog will return to its original site of birth and release a mating call. Males will be the first to arrive at the pond and await females as they enter. During this period of pre-female competition, the pond is significantly male dominant, and there is a large amount of intrasexual competition taking place.[24] The shallow portion of the pond, which is more suitable for egg laying, is more predominantly occupied by the larger males. However, once the females arrive, this territoriality quickly dissipates and male-female amplexed pairs are free to migrate wherever in the pond. Additionally, once engaged in an amplexus, it is rare for single males to attempt to displace or “take over” the paired male.[24]

It is also important to note the effect of size on a male common frog's mating strategies. Smaller frogs, during the pre-spawning period get displaced from the shallow areas of the pond. Therefore, they circumvent this issue by searching for females on the land or in areas of the pond where they first arrive.[23] Meanwhile, the larger frogs occupy the spawning site, where they encounter more amplexed pairs and therefore rely on their ability to displace amplexed males to secure a mate.[23] However, the frequency of these takeovers is not consistent.

Life cycle

Female common frog clutch sizes range from a few hundred up to 5,000 eggs. Many of these eggs form large aggregates that serve to thermoregulate as well as protect the developing embryo from potential predators. By bunching the eggs together, it raises the temperature of the embryo compared to the surrounding water, which is important because the rate of tadpole development is faster in higher temperatures.[25] Additionally, the eggs are typically laid in the shallower regions of the pond to prevent hypoxia-induced fatality of the embryos.[25]

It normally takes 2–3 weeks for the eggs to hatch. Afterwards, common frog larvae group up into schools where they help each other feed off of algae and larger plants, as well as avoid predators.[26] By June and July, most tadpoles will have metamorphosized, and the remaining time until winter is used to feed and grow larger.[26] Only the largest frogs will survive the winter, which places a large emphasis on rapid development until then. In fact, a common frog's rate of development correlates with temperature. In lower temperature regions, common frogs will hatch earlier and metamorphosize sooner than common frogs living in warmer climate regions.[26] Sexual maturity occurs only after three years, and common frogs will typically live between six and eight years.[25]

Common frog camouflaged in autumn leaves.

Development in the presence of predators

The presence of a predator in a common frog's early development has an effect on the metamorphosis traits of tadpole. For instance, when the predator is present in early development, it can lead to a longer larval period and were smaller in size and mass at metamorphosis.[27] Once the predator is removed, growth rate of the tadpole returns to baseline and even exceeds what the typical growth. This influence of predator threat is only significant during early tadpole development.[27]

One of the common frog's most pervasive predators is the red-eared sliders (Trachemys scripta elegans), which is the most invasive species of turtles in the world. In the presence of red-eared sliders, early development common frog tadpoles exhibit longer metamorphosis times, as well as smaller size (cm) and lower body mass (g) at metamorphosis.[27]

Thermoregulation

As an ectotherm, the common frog is very reliant on temperature as it directly influences their metabolism, development, reproduction, muscle ability, and respiration. As such, common frogs at mid and high elevations have developed a unique set of strategies to survive in cold climates. In fact, it is due to the common frog's ability to thermoregulate so effectively that the species has been able to become so pervasive across a multitude of environments and climates, living as far north as the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia, which is further north than any other amphibian in the region.[13] Contrary to Lithobates sylvaticus (wood frogs), common frogs do not have the ability to freeze protect themselves by increasing their levels of blood glucose to serve as a cryoprotectant.[13] As a result, common frogs must rely on behavioral thermoregulation by seeking out warm microhabitats (such as in the soil or between rocks) during wintertime. Additionally, common frogs will commonly hibernate throughout the winter season in groups to provide bodily heating.[13]

Social behavior

Similar to other anuran species (Bufo americanus and Rana sylvatica), Rana temporaria are able to naturally discriminate others of its kind. Post-embryonic interaction with conspecifics is not necessary to induce associative behavior for common frogs as an adult. Rather, once common frog tadpoles have reached a certain age, they gain a strong innate associative tendency.[28] Rana temporaria tend to aggregate as the result of environmental pressures, such as temperature or predators.[29]

Grey heron feeding on a common frog

Predators

Tadpoles are eaten by fish, beetles, dragonfly larvae and birds. Adult frogs have many predators including storks, birds of prey, crows, gulls, ducks, terns, herons, pine martens, stoats, weasels, polecats, badgers, otters and snakes.[30] Some frogs are killed, but rarely eaten, by domestic cats, and large numbers are killed on the roads by motor vehicles.[31]

Interactions with humans and livestock

Common frogs have an important place in human ecology by controlling the insect populations. In particular, their consumption of mosquitos and other crop-damaging insects has been especially valuable. In addition, Rana temporaria, due to their ecological pervasiveness and relative abundance, have become a common laboratory specimen.[30]

Farming

R. temporaria are farmed.[32] Miles et al. 2004 provide improved ingredients for manufacturers of pellet food for farmed common frogs.[32]

Due to the spread of diseases such as ranavirus, the UK based amphibian charity Froglife advised the public to avoid transporting frogspawn, tadpoles or frogs from one pond to another, even if these are close by.[33] It has also been recommended not to place goldfish or exotic frog species in outdoor ponds as this could have a negative effect on the frog population.

References

  1. ^ a b Kuzmin, S., Ishchenko, V., Tuniyev, B., Beebee, T., Andreone, F., Nyström, P., Anthony, B.P., Schmidt, B., Ogrodowczyk, A., Ogielska, M., Bosch, J., Miaud, C., Loman, J., Cogalniceanu, D., Kovács, T. & Kiss, I. (2009). Rana temporaria (errata version published in 2016). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2009: doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2009.RLTS.T58734A11834246.en
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Common frog, grass frog". Nature Wildfacts. BBC. Archived from the original on 28 October 2002. Retrieved 9 August 2007.
  3. ^ a b Sterry, Paul (1997). Complete British Wildlife Photoguide. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-583-33638-8.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g Kuzmin, Sergius L. (10 November 1999). "Rana temporia". AmphibiaWeb. Retrieved 9 August 2007.
  5. ^ "Common frog | amphibian | Britannica".
  6. ^ a b Roots, Clive (2006). Hibernation. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. pp. 510, 511. ISBN 0-313-33544-3.
  7. ^ a b "The Common Frog - (Rana temporaria)". enfo.ie. ENFO. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 9 August 2007.
  8. ^ Dunlop, David (26 February 2004). "Common Frog final" (PDF). Lancashire BAP. Retrieved 9 August 2007.
  9. ^ Rana temporaria have established themselves as a wild population in Nólsoy. jenskjeld.info
  10. ^ a b Teacher, A. G. F.; T. W. J. Garner; R. A. Nichols (21 January 2009). "European phylogeography of the common frog (Rana temporaria): routes of postglacial colonization into the British Isles, and evidence for an Irish glacial refugium". Heredity. 102 (5): 490–496. doi:10.1038/hdy.2008.133. ISSN 0018-067X. PMID 19156165.
  11. ^ "Irish frogs may have survived Ice Age". Zoological Society of London. 17 March 2009. Archived from the original on 18 June 2009.
  12. ^ a b Johansson, Markus; Primmer, Craig R.; Merilä, Juha (14 March 2006). "History vs. current demography: explaining the genetic population structure of the common frog (Rana temporaria)". Molecular Ecology. 15 (4): 975–983. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2006.02866.x. PMID 16599961. S2CID 30974911.
  13. ^ a b c d Ludwig, Gerda; Sinsch, Ulrich; Pelster, Bernd (1 April 2015). "Behavioural adaptations of Rana temporaria to cold climates". Journal of Thermal Biology. 49–50: 82–90. doi:10.1016/j.jtherbio.2015.02.006. PMID 25774030.
  14. ^ a b Teacher, A. G. F.; Cunningham, A. A.; Garner, T. W. J. (10 June 2010). "Assessing the long-term impact of Ranavirus infection in wild common frog populations: Impact of Ranavirus on wild frog populations". Animal Conservation. 13 (5): 514–522. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.2010.00373.x. S2CID 85889833.
  15. ^ a b Hitchings, Susan P.; Beebee, Trevor J. C. (August 1997). "Genetic substructuring as a result of barriers to gene flow in urban Rana temporaria (common frog) populations: implications for biodiversity conservation". Heredity. 79 (2): 117–127. doi:10.1038/hdy.1997.134. PMID 9279008. S2CID 6284299.
  16. ^ a b Stojanova, A.; Mollov, I. (2008). "DIET AND TROPHIC NICHE OVERLAP OF THE MOOR FROG (Rana arvalis Nilsson, 1842) AND THE COMMON FROG (Rana temporaria L., 1758) FROM POLAND". S2CID 83200707. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  17. ^ "Tadpole to frog: development stages & metamorphosis - Saga". www.saga.co.uk. Retrieved 17 March 2023.
  18. ^ Houston, W. W. K. (October 1973). "The food of the Common frog, Rana temporaria, on high moorland in northern England". Journal of Zoology. 171 (2): 153–165. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1973.tb02212.x. ISSN 0952-8369.
  19. ^ Trakimas, Giedrius; Jardine, Timothy D.; Barisevičiūtė, Rūta; Garbaras, Andrius; Skipitytė, Raminta; Remeikis, Vidmantas (6 July 2011). "Ontogenetic dietary shifts in European common frog (Rana temporaria) revealed by stable isotopes". Hydrobiologia. 675 (1): 87. doi:10.1007/s10750-011-0804-3. S2CID 39126267.
  20. ^ "Rana temporaria". Animal Diversity Web.
  21. ^ "AmphibiaWeb - Rana temporaria".
  22. ^ Anon. "Frog Reproduction". Frog-garden.com. Frog-garden.com. Retrieved 23 March 2014.
  23. ^ a b c Elmberg, Johan (1986). "Apparent lack of territoriality during the breeding season in a boreal population of common frogs Rana temporaria L". Herpetological Journal. 1 (2): 81–83.
  24. ^ a b c Ryser, Jan (1 January 1989). "The breeding migration and mating system of a Swiss population of the common frog Rana temporaria". Amphibia-Reptilia. 10 (1): 13–21. doi:10.1163/156853889X00269.
  25. ^ a b c Laugen, A. T.; Laurila, A.; Rasanen, K.; Merila, J. (September 2003). "Latitudinal countergradient variation in the common frog (Rana temporaria) development rates - evidence for local adaptation". Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 16 (5): 996–1005. doi:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2003.00560.x. PMID 14635915. S2CID 22444241.
  26. ^ a b c Terhivuo, Juhani (1988). "Phenology of spawning for the Common Frog (Rana temporaria L.) in Finland from 1846 to 1986". Annales Zoologici Fennici. 25 (2): 165–175. ISSN 0003-455X. JSTOR 23734521.
  27. ^ a b c Vodrážková, M.; Šetlíková, I.; Navrátil, J.; Berec, M. (12 May 2022). "Different time patterns of the presence of red-eared slider influence the ontogeny dynamics of common frog tadpoles". Scientific Reports. 12 (1): 7876. Bibcode:2022NatSR..12.7876V. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-11561-6. PMC 9098440. PMID 35552438. S2CID 248759763.
  28. ^ Griffiths, R. A.; Foster, J. P. (August 1998). "The effect of social interactions on tadpole activity and growth in the British anuran amphibians ( Bufo bufo , B. calamita , and Rana temporaria )". Journal of Zoology. 245 (4): 431–437. doi:10.1017/S0952836998008061.
  29. ^ Nicieza, A. G. (December 1999). "Context-dependent aggregation in Common Frog Rana temporaria tadpoles: influence of developmental stage, predation risk and social environment: Context-dependent aggregation in frog tadpoles". Functional Ecology. 13 (6): 852–858. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2435.1999.00375.x.
  30. ^ a b Anon. "Common frog: rana temporaria" (PDF). All about... Scottish National Heritage. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 February 2010. Retrieved 10 November 2010.
  31. ^ RSPB Birds magazine Summer 2004, page 66
  32. ^ a b Ferrie, Gina M.; Alford, Vance C.; Atkinson, Jim; Baitchman, Eric; Barber, Diane; Blaner, William S.; Crawshaw, Graham; Daneault, Andy; Dierenfeld, Ellen; Finke, Mark; Fleming, Greg; Gagliardo, Ron; Hoffman, Eric A.; Karasov, William; Klasing, Kirk; Koutsos, Elizabeth; Lankton, Julia; Lavin, Shana R.; Lentini, Andrew; Livingston, Shannon; Lock, Brad; Mason, Tom; McComb, Alejandra; Morris, Cheryl; Pessier, Allan P.; Olea-Popelka, Francisco; Probst, Tom; Rodriguez, Carlos; Schad, Kristine; Semmen, Kent; Sincage, Jamie; Stamper, M. Andrew; Steinmetz, Jason; Sullivan, Kathleen; Terrell, Scott; Wertan, Nina; Wheaton, Catharine J.; Wilson, Brad; Valdes, Eduardo V. (8 October 2014). Nutrition and health in amphibian husbandry. Veterinary Medicine, Husbandry, Nutrition, Science, and Research Working Groups of the Ex Situ Amphibian Medicine and Nutrition Workshop (February 2013). Zoo Biology. Vol. 33, no. 6. Wiley Periodicals. pp. 485–501. doi:10.1002/zoo.21180. ISSN 0733-3188. PMC 4685711. PMID 25296396. S2CID 17636001. NIHMSID 743535.
  33. ^ "Spawn & tadpoles: in my garden". www.froglife.org. Retrieved 18 May 2022.

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Common frog: Brief Summary

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Male Rana temporaria calling in a garden pond in Jambes, Belgium

The common frog or grass frog (Rana temporaria), also known as the European common frog, European common brown frog, European grass frog, European Holarctic true frog, European pond frog or European brown frog, is a semi-aquatic amphibian of the family Ranidae, found throughout much of Europe as far north as Scandinavia and as far east as the Urals, except for most of the Iberian Peninsula, southern Italy, and the southern Balkans. The farthest west it can be found is Ireland. It is also found in Asia, and eastward to Japan. The nominative, and most common, subspecies Rana temporaria temporaria is a largely terrestrial frog native to Europe. It is distributed throughout northern Europe and can be found in Ireland, the Isle of Lewis and as far east as Japan.

Common frogs metamorphose through three distinct developmental life stages — aquatic larva, terrestrial juvenile, and adult. They have corpulent bodies with a rounded snout, webbed feet and long hind legs adapted for swimming in water and hopping on land. Common frogs are often confused with the common toad (Bufo bufo), but frogs can easily be distinguished as they have longer legs, hop, and have a moist skin, whereas toads crawl and have a dry 'warty' skin. The spawn of the two species also differs, in that frog spawn is laid in clumps and toad spawn is laid in long strings.

There are 3 subspecies of the common frog, R. t. temporaria, R. t. honnorati and R. t. palvipalmata. R. t. temporaria is the most common subspecies of this frog.

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