dcsimg

Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

provided by AnAge articles
Maximum longevity: 32.5 years (captivity) Observations: While sexual maturity may occur earlier, breeding normally does not occur before age 4. In the wild, these animals normally do not live over 12 years (http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/).
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Joao Pedro de Magalhaes
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Morphology

provided by Animal Diversity Web

As the largest North American swans, these birds can weigh up to 13.5 kg and measure approximately 1.6 m in length. Wingspan can often exceed 2 m. When they are young "cygnets", the bill features some degree of pink but is always black at the base. The feet and tarsi (portion of the foot that makes up the ankle region) may be a grey-yellow. The body is light to dark grey, and will gradually whiten with age. At age two, most but not all of their feathers have turned white, except for a few on the upper portion of the body.

At adulthood their feet, bill, and tarsals are black. They have pink to red mouths which can be seen as a small pink or red line (a 'grin') on the bill. Their feathers are completely white. There is also a small percentage of trumpeter swans that have a grey-white tint for feather color instead of pure white.

They appear very similar to tundra swans (Cygnus columbianus), with the most reliable differences found near the beak. Viewed face-forward or top-down, trumpeter swans have an angular, v-shaped forehead at the base of the beak. Tundra swans have a curved or straight forehead. Most tundra swans have a yellow-white 'teardrop' on their black beak, however this is not always a reliable field mark.

Range mass: 9.5 to 13.5 kg.

Range length: 1.4 to 1.6 m.

Range wingspan: 2.0 to 2.4 m.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike

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Robins, K. 2011. "Cygnus buccinator" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cygnus_buccinator.html
author
Kaitlyn Robins, Radford University
editor
Karen Francl, Radford University
editor
Rachelle Sterling, Special Projects
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Conservation Status

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Historically, birds were heavily harvested for decorative feathers and skins. Many birds continue to be hunted illegally. If birds are illegally shot and do not die immediately, an embedded bullet may cause lead poisoning and eventual death. Today, habitat destruction is likely the greatest threat to trumpeter swans. Efforts are being made to protect trumpeter swans and their wetland habitat, with many states involved in reintroduction programs. As migratory birds, they are protected under the United States Migratory Bird Act.

Trumpeter swans are also affected by recent population increases of invasive mute swans. Mute swans are markedly more aggressive and will often chase trumpeters away from their shared wetland habitats. Some states are involved in mute swan control programs with the goal of reducing populations to allow for native swans to return.

US Migratory Bird Act: protected

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: threatened

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

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Robins, K. 2011. "Cygnus buccinator" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cygnus_buccinator.html
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Kaitlyn Robins, Radford University
editor
Karen Francl, Radford University
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Rachelle Sterling, Special Projects
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Behavior

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Trumpeter swans produce a variety of sounds, but they are known for their low bugle call. In addition to the bugle call, they also use motions such as head bobbing to alert others of disturbances or in preparation for flight. Trumpeter swans are very social creatures except for in times of mating, when they become quite territorial. Pheromones are also used in mating rituals. The female emits pheromones when she is ready to mate. Breeding pairs perform visual, synchronous displays which likely reinforce the pair-bond. Trumpeter swans call to warn the flock of impending danger. Trumpeter swans perceive their environment through visual, auditory, tactile, and chemical stimuli.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

Other Communication Modes: duets ; pheromones

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

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Robins, K. 2011. "Cygnus buccinator" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cygnus_buccinator.html
author
Kaitlyn Robins, Radford University
editor
Karen Francl, Radford University
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Rachelle Sterling, Special Projects
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Associations

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Although adults aggressively defend their nests, ground nests are easy targets for land predators. Many predators, such as bears, wolves and coyotes, wolverines, raccoons, and common ravens are known to snatch eggs. Post-hatchlings and adults are prey to fast predators such as coyotes, bobcats, red foxes, and golden eagles. The main predator of adult trumpeter swans is mankind. Humans have hunted more of these swans than anything else.

Trumpeter swans are aggressive towards predators, and at 12 kg with a 2 m wingspan, they can potentially inflict serious damage. Trumpeter swans do exhibit warning behaviors before they attack, including head bobbing and hissing.

Known Predators:

  • Man (Homo sapien sapiens)
  • Bears (Ursus)
  • Wolves (Canis)
  • Coyotes (Canis latrans)
  • Wolverines (Gulo luscus)
  • Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes)
  • Raccoons (Procyon lotor)
  • Bobcat (Lynx rufus)
  • Ravens (Corvus corax)
  • Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos)
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Robins, K. 2011. "Cygnus buccinator" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cygnus_buccinator.html
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Kaitlyn Robins, Radford University
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Karen Francl, Radford University
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Rachelle Sterling, Special Projects
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Benefits

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Trumpeter swans are very territorial animals, especially during mating season, and humans that enter their territory may be attacked.

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Robins, K. 2011. "Cygnus buccinator" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cygnus_buccinator.html
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Kaitlyn Robins, Radford University
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Karen Francl, Radford University
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Rachelle Sterling, Special Projects
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Benefits

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Trumpeter swans used to be a commercial hunting target for feathers and skins, but over-hunting led to their marked decline. Today, only illegal hunting occurs.

Positive Impacts: body parts are source of valuable material

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Robins, K. 2011. "Cygnus buccinator" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cygnus_buccinator.html
author
Kaitlyn Robins, Radford University
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Karen Francl, Radford University
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Rachelle Sterling, Special Projects
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Associations

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Trumpeter swans' main role in the ecosystem is linked to their diet. Trumpeter swans eat many insects when they are young. As they grow they switch to roots and aquatic plants, digging around to get them which in many cases allows water to fill the remaining holes supplying a very valuable nutrient to the plants. Cygnus buccinator can also be a host to a small number of parasites including tapeworms (Anoplocephala perfoliata), caecal paramphistomids (Zygocotyle lunata), trematode flukes (Echinostoma revolutum), another type of trematode (Orchipedum tracheicola), filarial worms (a nematode found in the heart) of the species Sarconema eurycerca, and other forms of tapeworms (Hymenolepis).

Ecosystem Impact: soil aeration

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

  • Tapeworms (Anoplocephala perfoliata)
  • Caecal paramphistomids (Zygocotyle lunata)
  • Trematode flukes (Echinostoma revolutum)
  • Trematodes (Orchipedum tracheicola)
  • Filarial worms (Sarconema eurycerca)
  • Tapeworms (Hymenolepis)
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Robins, K. 2011. "Cygnus buccinator" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cygnus_buccinator.html
author
Kaitlyn Robins, Radford University
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Karen Francl, Radford University
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Rachelle Sterling, Special Projects
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Trophic Strategy

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As cygnets, trumpeter swans' diets are mostly comprised of aquatic invertebrates. At five weeks of age, most cygnets have converted to a nearly herbivorous diet. This diet consists mostly of tubers, roots, stems, leaves and occasionally insects. In Alaska during mating season, the wetland plants commonly known as horsetail (genus Equisetum) and Lyngbye's sedge (Carex lyngbyei) are consumed in great quantities. However, because of the wide distribution of the species there are some variations of their diet such as duck potato (Sagittaria latifolia), water weeds (genus Elodea), pondweeds (genus Potamogeton) and sago pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus) tubers.

Trumpeter swans attain their food by foraging underwater with tails bobbing in the air. They also yank plants out of the damp ground, with most of the plant intact.

Animal Foods: aquatic or marine worms

Plant Foods: leaves; roots and tubers

Primary Diet: herbivore (Folivore )

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Robins, K. 2011. "Cygnus buccinator" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cygnus_buccinator.html
author
Kaitlyn Robins, Radford University
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Karen Francl, Radford University
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Rachelle Sterling, Special Projects
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Distribution

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Trumpeter swans are found throughout the Nearctic Region, mainly in Alaska, Canada, and the northern United States. A large percentage is found in Alaska, specifically in Prince William Sound and the Copper River Delta. Some trumpeter swans have even taken up residence in Yellowstone Park, Wyoming.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )

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Robins, K. 2011. "Cygnus buccinator" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cygnus_buccinator.html
author
Kaitlyn Robins, Radford University
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Karen Francl, Radford University
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Rachelle Sterling, Special Projects
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Habitat

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Trumpeter swans live on land but always in close proximity to water. They are found in wetlands with open water and areas with many rivers or streams. Waters can be salt water, fresh water, or brackish water. Their climate ranges from temperate to polar. Reasons for their choice of environment have to do with their diet and nesting habits. Cygnus buccinator feeds off many plants native to those areas. They are also known for laying their eggs near or on the water. They seek out the same habitat type for wintering grounds.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; polar ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: tundra

Aquatic Biomes: lakes and ponds; rivers and streams; coastal ; brackish water

Wetlands: marsh

Other Habitat Features: riparian ; estuarine

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Robins, K. 2011. "Cygnus buccinator" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cygnus_buccinator.html
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Kaitlyn Robins, Radford University
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Karen Francl, Radford University
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Rachelle Sterling, Special Projects
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Life Expectancy

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Young trumpeter swans often have survival estimates from 40% to 100%, adult swan survival increases to 80% to 100%. The oldest captive trumpeter swan on record was 33 years old. In the wild, the oldest known individual was 24.

Range lifespan
Status: wild:
24 (high) years.

Range lifespan
Status: captivity:
33 (high) years.

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Robins, K. 2011. "Cygnus buccinator" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cygnus_buccinator.html
author
Kaitlyn Robins, Radford University
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Karen Francl, Radford University
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Rachelle Sterling, Special Projects
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Reproduction

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Trumpeter swans are monogamous and mate for life. During mating season, trumpeter swans reunite with their former mates or begin a process of courtship to secure a mate. Courtship displays consist of pairs simultaneously spreading or raising wings, wing quivering, head bobbing and trumpeting.

Mating System: monogamous

Adults begin mating at 4 to 7 years of age. Mating usually occurs from March to May. Nest-building can take 2 to 5 weeks to complete, and both parents are involved in construction. The nests range from 1.2 to 3.6 m in diameter and are usually surrounded by water. The materials used in nests building include various aquatic vegetation, grasses, and sedges.

After copulation and fertilization, the females lay 4 to 6 eggs. Incubation lasts for 32 to 37 days, done mainly by the female. The young, precocial cygnets spend their first 24 hours in the nest, then begin to swim. They fledge after 91 to 119 days and are independent after one year.

Breeding interval: Trumpeter swans breed once yearly.

Breeding season: Trumpeter swans breed from March to May.

Range eggs per season: 4 to 6.

Range time to hatching: 32 to 37 days.

Range fledging age: 91 to 119 days.

Average time to independence: 1 years.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 4 to 7 years.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 4 to 7 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous

Both parents contribute to nest building which lasts 2 to 5 weeks. The female will perform the majority of incubation. Unlike many birds, trumpeter swans do not have a specialized brood patch and instead will incubate the eggs using their feet. Upon hatching, the young are precocial but still require significant parental care. Both parents care for the cygnets throughout their first year.

Parental Investment: precocial ; male parental care ; female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); post-independence association with parents; extended period of juvenile learning

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Robins, K. 2011. "Cygnus buccinator" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cygnus_buccinator.html
author
Kaitlyn Robins, Radford University
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Karen Francl, Radford University
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Rachelle Sterling, Special Projects
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Cool facts

provided by EOL authors
The largest of North American waterfowl, the Trumpeter Swan is resident throughout much of its range, but migratory in other parts. Its was reduced to near extinction by the early 20th century, but it is relatively common today. The Trumpeter Swan was hunted for its feathers throughout the 1600s - 1800s, causing a tremendous decline in its numbers. Its largest flight feathers made what were considered to be the best quality quill pens. Swans can live a long time. Wild Trumpeter Swans have been known to live longer than 24 years, and one captive individual lived to be 32. Trumpeter Swans form pair bonds when they are three or four years old. The pair stays together throughout the year, moving together in migratory populations. Trumpeters are assumed to mate for life, but some individuals do switch mates over their lifetimes. Some males that lost their mates did not mate again.
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Trumpeter Swan (Cygnus buccinator). The Cornell Lab of Ornithology All About Birds. http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Trumpeter_Swan/lifehistory. Accessed 28 Jan 2014.
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J Medby (jamiemedby)
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Associated Plant Communities

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
Trumpeter swans are generally found in wetland areas among aquatic and
emergent vegetation. In Montana, they commonly build their nests in
extensive beds of sedges (Carex spp.), bulrushes (Scirpus spp.),
cattails (Typha spp.), and reeds (Juncus spp.). In Alaska, they use
horsetails (Equisetum spp.) and sedges for nesting [4,10]. Plants found
in most trumpeter swan habitats include willow (Salix spp.), alder
(Alnus spp.), cottonwood (Populus spp.), water milfoil (Myriophyllum
exalbescens), arrowhead (Sagittaria latifolia), and pondweed
(Potamogeton spp.) [3,10].
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Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Cygnus buccinator. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Common Names

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
trumpeter swan
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Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Cygnus buccinator. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Conservation Status

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
Information on state- and province-level protection status of animals in the
United States and Canada is available at NatureServe, although recent changes
in status may not be included.
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bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Cygnus buccinator. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Cover Requirements

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the terms: cover, shrubs

Tall emergent vegetation provides shelter and cover for trumpeter swans
[10]. Adults may remove vegetation around the nest until the nest is
surrounded by open water. This provides good visibility and protection
from land predators [2]. During winter, trumpeter swans prefer open
sites with few trees or shrubs to obscure their vision while feeding
[23].
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bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Cygnus buccinator. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Distribution

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
Trumpeter swans were once abundant and widespread in North America.
Their breeding range extended from Alaska east to Ontario and south to
Oregon, the Rocky Mountains, Nebraska, and northern Missouri [20]. Now
only two major populations remain [4,17,20]. The Pacific population
breeds in Alaska and British Columbia, and winters along the Pacific
Coast from Alaska to northern Oregon [20,23]. The mid-continental
population nests in Alberta, British Columbia, Yukon, Northwest
Territories, Saskatchewan, and the Greater Yellowstone region [20,23].
Overhunting of trumpeter swans destroyed most of their traditional
migration patterns to southerly winter habitats. As a result, virtually
all mid-continental trumpeter swans, regardless of their summer range,
now winter in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem [23].

Trumpeter swans have been transplanted from Red Rock Lakes National
Wildlife Refuge, Montana, to several other National Wildlife Refuges
(NWR): Malheur NWR in Oregon, Ruby Lake NWR in Nevada, Lacreek NWR in
South Dakota, and Turnbull NWR in Washington. A small number of
breeding swans occur on all four refuges [4]. In Canada, attempts are
underway to reintroduce trumpeter swans in southern Ontario and in Elk
Island National Park [2].
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bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Cygnus buccinator. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Food Habits

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
Trumpeter swans eat the roots, stems, leaves, and/or seeds of a variety
of aquatic vegetation, and they occasionally eat insects [2].
Initially, young cygnets eat large aquatic insects and snails. Cygnets
feed on the water's surface and often depend on the adults to stir up
the water around them. Within 2 to 3 weeks the cygnets start to eat
aquatic plants [2].

Trumpeter swans feed on the following: the tubers of duck potato and
sago pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus); the stems and leaves of sago and
other pondweeds (Potamogeton spp.), water milfoil (Myriophyllum
verticullatum), muskgrass (Chara spp.), waterweed (Elodea canadensis),
and duckweed (Lemna triscula); the seeds of yellow pond lily (Nuphar
polysepala), water shield (Bransenia schreber), smartweed (Polygonum
spp.), sedges (Carex spp.), and spikerush (Eleocharis spp.); and the
stems and roots of grasses and sedges [2,3,4,17].
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cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Cygnus buccinator. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat-related Fire Effects

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the term: marsh

No specific information was found in the literature regarding
fire-related effects on trumpeter swan habitat. Fire occuring in wetland
habitats, however, often removes excessive accumulations of fast-growing
hydrophytes, permitting better waterfowl access and growth of more
desirable trumpeter swan foods such as pondweed and duckweed [19,21].

There may be some negetive effects of burning waterfowl habitat.
Large-scale autumn burning may have a detrimental effect upon marshes by
reducing the retention of drifting snow. The ability of marsh vegetion
to catch and hold snow is vital to marsh survival [22].
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bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Cygnus buccinator. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Cover Types

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

204 Black spruce
205 Mountain hemlock
217 Aspen
218 Lodgepole pine
222 Black cottonwood - willow
223 Sitka spruce
224 Western hemlock
225 Western hemlock - Sitka spruce
226 Coastal true fir - hemlock
227 Western redcedar - western hemlock
228 Western redcedar
235 Cottonwood - willow
253 Black spruce - white spruce
254 Black spruce - paper birch
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bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Cygnus buccinator. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Ecosystem

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

FRES23 Fir-spruce
FRES24 Hemlock-Sitka spruce
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES37 Mountain meadows
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
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bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Cygnus buccinator. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Plant Associations

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the term: forest

K001 Spruce - cedar - hemlock forest
K004 Fir - hemlock forest
K008 Lodgepole pine - subalpine forest
K015 Western spruce - fir forest
K020 Spruce - fir - Douglas-fir forest
K021 Southwestern spruce - fir forest
K025 Alder - ash forest
K063 Foothills prairie
K064 Grama - needlegrass - wheatgrass
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bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Cygnus buccinator. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Management Considerations

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the term: formation

The commercial swanskin trade, coupled with sport hunting and habitat
destruction, reduced the species to near extinction by 1920. The
trumpeter swans' traditional migration patterns and knowledge of
important winter and spring habitats were lost as the swans neared
extinction. Although recovery efforts have increased swan numbers,
historic migratory paths have not yet been restored. As a result,
virtually all the breeding trumpeter swans of Canada and the Greater
Yellowstone Ecosystem share the same high-elevation winter habitat in
the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Increasing numbers of wintering
swans, concentrating on this limited, harsh winter habitat are
vulnerable to catastrophic losses. Reduced flows during drought, heavy
ice formation, unusually severe winter weather, disease, or
environmental pollution could destroy a large portion of the
mid-continental population during a single winter [23].

Trumpeter swans are sensitive to human activities on their breeding
grounds. Intrusions by humans at nesting wetlands have caused temporary
and permanent nest abandonment as well as movements from breeding and
staging areas [2,11]. Trumpeter swans will not nest on lakes
intensively developed for recreation. The swans are most sensitive to
disturbance from mid-April to mid-June [2].

Cygnet survival is associated with spring weather and favorable water
levels. It is extremely important to properly manage water levels so
that nest flooding is avoided and growth of aquatic vegetation is
encouraged through nutrient cycling [18].

Management efforts currently focus on ensuring adequate stream flows,
protecting and enhancing nesting and wintering habitat, and restoring
southward migration to lower elevation habitats [23].
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bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Cygnus buccinator. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Occurrence in North America

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals

AK
ID
MT
NV
OR
SD
WA
WY

AB
BC
NT
YK

MEXICO

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Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Cygnus buccinator. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Predators

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Predation is of little consequence in determining overall trumpeter swan
population levels, but may be an important cause of death to preflight
cygnets [3]. Except for man, trumpeter swans have few natural enemies
after flying age is reached. Coyotes (Canis lutrans), river otters
(Lutra canadensis), minks (Mustela vison), and golden eagles (Aquila
chrysaetos) have been blamed for cygnet deaths in Yellowstone National
Park and Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge [20]. The following
species also occur in trumpeter swan habitat and could potentially prey
on trumpeter swans: black bears (Ursus americanus), grizzly bears (U.
arctos), lynx (Lynx canadensis), bald eagles (Haliaetus leucocephalus),
greathorned owls (Bubo virgianus), mountain lions (Felis concolor),
bobcats (Lynx rufus), striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis), red fox (Vulpes
vulpes), raccoons (Procyon lotor), and gulls (Larus spp.) [20].
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Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Cygnus buccinator. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Preferred Habitat

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More info for the terms: cover, forest

Breeding habitat - Trumpeter swans nest on the margins of interconnected
shallow marshes and lakes, lakes within forest or sagebrush habitat,
and oxbows of rivers [18]. They prefer stable, quiet, shallow waters
where small islands, muskrat houses, or dense emergent vegetation
provide nesting and loafing sites. Nutrient-rich waters, with dense
aquatic plant and invertebrate growth, provide the best habitat [3,23].

Nests are built in water 1 to 3 feet deep [4]. Trumpeter swans build a
platform nest made of emergent vegetation. The nest is often located on
a muskrat house, beaver lodge, or small island [18]. In Alaska,
trumpeter swan nests are built 10 to 600 feet (3-183 m) from shore,
depending upon cover and water depth. Occasionally, a nest is located
on or near the shoreline of a small inlet in a large lake [10].

Winter habitat - Winter habitat must provide extensive beds of aquatic
plants and water that remains ice-free. In the Greater Yellowstone
region, cold temperatures and ice restrict trumpeter swans to sites
where geothermal waters, springs, or outflow from dams maintain ice-free
areas. In winter, trumpeter swans use shallow lakes, streams, and ponds
that do not entirely freeze over during the winter months [18,23].
Pacific Coast trumpeter swans use both esuaries and freshwater habitats,
and feed in pastures and croplands [23]. Good winter habitat also
contains a certain amount of level and open terrain, allowing these large
birds to loaf or fly without restriction of movement or visibility [3].
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cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Cygnus buccinator. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Regional Distribution in the Western United States

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More info on this topic.

This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
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Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Cygnus buccinator. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Taxonomy

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
The currently accepted scientific name for the trumpeter swan is
Cygnus buccinator Richardson [1,4,17]. There are no recognized
subspecies or races.
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bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Cygnus buccinator. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Timing of Major Life History Events

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More info for the terms: formation, severity

Pair formation - Trumpeter swans most often form pair bonds when they
are 2 or 3 years old, and first nest when they are 4 or 5 years old.
Most pairs remain together year-round and bond for life [2,18,23].

Nesting - In the Copper River area of Alaska, the Greater Yellowstone
area, and Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, egg laying normally
begins in late April or early May and is completed about mid-May [4,17].
In interior Alaska, egg laying begins later than in the above areas
[17]. In Alberta, the eggs are layed in mid-May [2].

Clutch size and incubation - Each breeding pair uses only one nest and
the female lays five to six eggs [2,14,17]. If the eggs are destroyed
the pair will probably not renest [2]. The incubation period is 33 to
37 days [3,4,18].

Cygnet development and fledging - Trumpeter swan cygnets grow rapidly
[4]. They are fully feathered in 9 to 10 weeks, but are unable to fly
until 13 to 15 weeks in Alaska and 14 to 17 weeks in Montana [4,17].
Cygnets remain with their parents throughout their first winter. They
separate from their parents the following spring, but siblings may
remain together into their third year. Family bonds are strong;
subadult siblings may rejoin with parents after nesting ends or in
subsequent winters [23].

Molt - Nonbreeding subadults molt first. Most nonbreeders in Alaska
begin their molt in late June or early July. At Red Rock Lakes, the
molt may be completed as early as June [4]. It is rare for both members
of a breeding pair to be flightless at the same time. The male of the
pair usually molts first. Some paired birds may begin to molt as early
as nonbreeders. Many, however, delay a month or longer. Some trumpeter
swans are flightless until early September in Alaska and until October
in Montana. Trumpeter swans are normally flightless for about 30 days
[4].

Migration - The seasonal movements of trumpeter swans in the Greater
Yellowstone region are limited to local flights between breeding habitat
and contiguous wintering areas. No molt migration is known. Breeders
molt in the general vicinity of nesting territories [17].

In Alaska, trumpeter swan populations migrate south in shifts. This
occurs from September until very late in the year, with times and
distances varying depending on severity of the weather. Trumpeter swans
move from interior regions in September, as total freeze-up occurs by
the first week in October. By mid-October, they have usually left
Kenai, located on the coast. On the Copper River Delta, many swans
remain until about mid-November. They arrive at Lonesome Lake, British
Columbia, beginning October 20 through October 25 [17].

Life span - Trumpeter swans may live up to 35 years in captivity but
usually do not live more than 12 years in the wild [2].
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bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Cygnus buccinator. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Use of Fire in Population Management

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the terms: fire regime, marsh

Prescribed burning is an effective method of manipulating waterfowl
habitat [19]. Fire can be used to convert forested uplands adjacent to
aquatic habitats to grasses and sedges, which are more suitable for
trumpter swan nesting [21]. Additionally, removal of dense vegetation
and prevention of woody species encroachment is vital to prairie marsh
maintenance [22]. Less dense vegetation allows more space for waterfowl
activities [19]. Ward [22] reported that spring burning in marshlands
is primarily done to remove vegetation and create more nesting edge for
waterfowl. Summer fires are used to create more permanent changes in
the plant community. Prescribed burning during the nesting season
should be avoided so as not to disturb nesting females and/or destroy
nests.

FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find FIRE REGIMES".
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Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Cygnus buccinator. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Trumpeter swan

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The trumpeter swan (Cygnus buccinator) is a species of swan found in North America. The heaviest living bird native to North America, it is also the largest extant species of waterfowl, with a wingspan of 185 to 250 cm (6 ft 2 in to 8 ft 2 in).[3] It is the American counterpart and a close relative of the whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus) of Eurasia, and even has been considered the same species by some authorities.[4] By 1933, fewer than 70 wild trumpeters were known to exist, and extinction seemed imminent, until aerial surveys discovered a Pacific population of several thousand trumpeters around Alaska's Copper River.[5] Careful reintroductions by wildlife agencies and the Trumpeter Swan Society gradually restored the North American wild population to over 46,000 birds by 2010.[6]

Description

Juvenile at the Cincinnati Zoo
Its black bill is useful in distinguishing the trumpeter swan from the introduced mute swan.[7]
Plate 406 of the Birds of America by John James Audubon, depicting the trumpeter swan

The trumpeter swan is the largest extant species of waterfowl, and both the heaviest and longest native bird of North America. Adults usually measure 138–165 cm (4 ft 6 in – 5 ft 5 in) long, though large males can exceed 180 cm (5 ft 11 in) in total length.[3][8][9][10] The weight of adult birds is typically 7–13.6 kg (15–30 lb). Possibly due to seasonal variation based on food access and variability due to age, average weights in males have been reported to range from 10.9 to 12.7 kg (24 to 28 lb) and from 9.4 to 10.3 kg (21 to 23 lb) in females.[3][11][12][13] It is one of the heaviest living birds or animals capable of flight, and, in terms of average mass, the heaviest flying bird in the world. Alongside the mute swan (Cygnus olor), Dalmatian pelican (Pelecanus crispus), kori bustard (Ardeotis kori), and Andean condor (Vultur gryphus), it is one of a handful to weigh in excess of 10 kg (22 lb) between the sexes, and one survey of wintering trumpeters found it averaged second only to the condor in mean mass.[14][15] The trumpeter swan's wingspan ranges from 185 to 250 cm (6 ft 1 in to 8 ft 2 in), with the wing chord measuring 60–68 cm (24–27 in).[3][8][9][16] The largest known male trumpeter attained a length of 183 cm (6 ft 0 in), a wingspan of 3.1 m (10 ft 2 in) and a weight of 17.2 kg (38 lb). It is the second heaviest wild waterfowl ever found, as one mute swan was found to weigh a massive 23 kg (51 lb), but it was unclear whether the latter swan was still capable of flight because of its bulk.[17]

The adult trumpeter swan's plumage is entirely white. Like mute swan cygnets, the cygnets of the trumpeter swan have light grey plumage and pinkish legs, gaining their white plumage after about a year. As with the whooper swan, this species has upright posture and generally swims with a straight neck. The trumpeter swan has a large, wedge-shaped black bill that can, in some cases, be minimally lined with salmon-pink coloration around the mouth. The bill, measuring 10.5–12 cm (4.1–4.7 in), is up to twice the length of a Canada goose's (Branta canadensis) bill and is the largest of any waterfowl. The legs are gray-pink in color, though in some birds can appear yellowish gray to even black. The tarsus measures 10.5–12 cm (4.1–4.7 in). The mute swan, introduced to North America, is scarcely smaller. However, it can easily be distinguished by its orange bill and different physical structure (particularly the neck, which is typically held curved as opposed to straight in the trumpeter). The mute swan is often found year-around in developed areas near human habitation in North America, whereas trumpeters are usually only found in pristine wetlands with minimal human disturbance, especially while breeding.[3] The tundra swan (C. columbianus) more closely resembles the trumpeter, but is significantly smaller. The neck of a male trumpeter may be twice as long as the neck of a tundra swan.[3] The tundra swan can be further distinguished by its yellow lores. However, some trumpeter swans have yellow lores; many of these individuals appear to be leucistic and have paler legs than typical trumpeters.[18] Distinguishing tundra and trumpeter swans from a distance (when size is harder to gauge) can be challenging without direct comparison but it is possible thanks to the trumpeter's obviously longer neck (the great length of which is apparent even when the swan is not standing or swimming upright) and larger, wedge-shaped bill as compared to the tundra swan.

Trumpeter swans have similar calls to whooper swans and Bewick's swans. They are loud and somewhat musical creatures, with their cry sounding similar to a trumpet, which gave the bird its name.

Range and habitat

Approximate summer range of the three regional populations of trumpeter swans in North America

Beginning in 1968, repeated in 1975, and then conducted at 5-year intervals, a cooperative continental survey of trumpeter swans was last conducted in 2015.[6] The survey assesses trumpeter swan abundance and productivity throughout the entire breeding ranges of the three recognized North American populations: the Pacific Coast (PCP), Rocky Mountain (RMP), and Interior (IP) populations (see Figure). From 1968 to 2010 the population has increased from 3,722 to approximately 46,225 birds, in large part due to re-introductions to its historic range.[6]

Their breeding habitat is large shallow ponds, undisturbed lakes, pristine wetlands and wide slow rivers, and marshes in northwestern and central North America, with the largest numbers of breeding pairs found in Alaska. They prefer nesting sites with enough space for them to have enough surface water for them to take off, as well as accessible food, shallow, unpolluted water, and little or no human disturbance.[19] Natural populations of these swans migrate to and from the Pacific coast and portions of the United States, flying in V-shaped flocks. Released populations are mostly non-migratory.

In the winter, they migrate to the southern tier of Canada, the eastern part of the northwest states in the United States, especially to the Red Rock Lakes area of Montana, the north Puget Sound region of northwest Washington state;[20] they have even been observed as far south as Pagosa Springs, Colorado. Historically, they ranged as far south as Texas and southern California.[21] Since 1992, trumpeter swans have been found in Arkansas each November – February on Magness Lake outside of Heber Springs.[22] In addition, there is a specimen in the Museum of Comparative Zoology in Cambridge, Massachusetts, that was shot by F. B. Armstrong in 1909 at Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico.[23] C. buccinator is therefore considered extirpated from Mexico. In early 2017, a juvenile trumpeter swan took up residence in the French Broad River in Asheville, North Carolina, marking the first such sighting in that part of the state.[24]

Non-migratory trumpeter swans have also been artificially introduced to some areas of Oregon, where they never originally occurred. Because of their natural beauty, they are suitable water fowl to attract bird watchers and other wildlife enthusiasts. Introductions of non-indigenous species in the Western states, for example through the Oregon Trumpeter Swan Program (OTSP), have also been met with criticism, but the introduction program argues that the perceived attractiveness of natural sites has priority over the original range of any given species.[25]

Occasional sightings of trumpeter swans have occurred in the United Kingdom;[26] while some of these are believed to be vagrants, most are presumed escapes into the wild. A single instance of the species breeding in the United Kingdom is reported from 1997, where two swans out of a group that escaped from a wildfowl collection at Apethorpe Palace, Northamptonshire raised a single cygnet on the River Nene.[27]

Diet

In winter, they may eat crop remnants in agricultural fields, but more commonly they feed while swimming

These birds feed while swimming, sometimes up-ending or dabbling in reaching submerged food. The diet is almost entirely aquatic plants and occasionally insects.[28] They will eat both the leaves and stems of submerged and emergent vegetation. They will also dig into muddy substrates underwater to extract roots and tubers. In winter, they may also eat grasses and grains in fields. They will often feed at night as well as by day. Feeding activity, and the birds' weights, often peak in the spring as they prepare for the breeding season.[29] The young initially include insects, small fish, fish eggs and small crustaceans in their diet, providing additional protein, and change to a vegetation-based diet over the first few months.[30]

Predators and mortality

Trumpeter swan and a common raccoon (Procyon lotor). Healthy adults are largely invulnerable to predation, but chicks and eggs are targeted by raccoons.

Predators of trumpeter swan eggs include common ravens (Corvus corax), common raccoons (Procyon lotor), wolverines (Gulo gulo), American black bears (Ursus americanus), grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis), coyotes (Canis latrans), gray wolves (Canis lupus), mountain lions (Puma concolor), and North American river otters (Lontra canadensis).[31][32][33][34][35][36][37] Nest location can provide partial protection from most mammalian nest predators, especially if placed on islands or floating vegetation in deep waters. Most of the same predators will prey on young cygnets, as well as common snapping turtles (Chelhydra serpentina), California gulls (Larus californicus), great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and American mink (Neogale vison).[32][34][38][39][40][41] Larger cygnets and, rarely, nesting adults may be ambushed by golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), bobcats (Lynx rufus), and probably both coyotes and gray wolves.[39][41][42]

When their eggs and young are threatened, the parents can be quite aggressive, initially displaying with head bobbing and hissing. If this is not sufficient, the adults will physically combat the predator, battering with their powerful wings. Adults have managed to beat predators equal to their own weight such as coyotes in confrontations.[43] Predation of adults, when they are not nesting, is extremely rare; golden and bald eagles, and coyotes can pose a threat, but substantiated cases are very few.[44] Photos of an exceptional attack by a bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) on an adult trumpeter swan in flight were taken in 2008, although the swan survived the predation attempt.[45] In another case, a coyote succeed killing an injured adult trumpeter swan.[46]

In captivity, members of this species have survived to 33 years old and, in the wild, have lived to at least 24 years. Young trumpeter swans may have as little as 40% chance of survival due variously to disturbance and destruction by humans, predation, nest flooding, and starvation. In some areas, though, the breeding success rate is considerably greater and, occasionally, all cygnets may reach maturity. Mortality in adults is quite low, with the survival rate usually being 80–100% annually, unless they are hunted by humans.[47]

Breeding behaviour

Courtship and mate choice behaviours

Trumpeter swan pair in Riverlands Migratory Bird Sanctuary.
Trumpeter swan courtship in Seedskadee National Wildlife Refuge.

Like other swans, trumpeter swans often mate for life, and both parents participate in raising their young, but primarily the female incubates the eggs. Most pair bonds are formed when swans are 5 to 7 years old, although some pairs do not form until they are nearly 20 years old. "Divorces" have been known between birds, in which case the mates will be serially monogamous, with mates in differing breeding seasons. Occasionally, if his mate dies, a male trumpeter swan may not pair again for the rest of his life.[19]

In late April, breeding pairs meet to begin the 11 to 35-day process of constructing a nest. Before this grueling process can come to be, much like many other species of birds, these creatures undergo several courtship rituals.[48] Trumpeter Swans have a strong tendency to avoid interactions with conspecifics, therefore it is implied that at first contact of a potential mating pair there is some unwillingness in the male and female to make this connection.[49] In order to overcome the initial encounter there are two common displays that can occur. At first, the male tends to pursue the female in a non-aggressive way. When the female allows the approach, the male will touch the breast of its body to the flank of the female which then causes both individuals to touch the breasts of their bodies together.[49] At this point the feathers on the neck of the male are stood up and the bills of the mating pair are pointed down indicating pacification. Another act of courtship occurs when a male swims in the direction of a possible mate and continuously turns its head from side to side to get the attention or perhaps impress the female.[49] Other common behavioral displays presented by the pair include spreading and raising their wings, the rapid or almost quivering motion of the wings, particular head motions that include bobbing, and finally the most known (and what the name of this animal originates) is the trumpeting that occurs.[50]

Acoustic communication among Trumpeter Swans is very common among all ages of the species. From the young cygnets to the adult swans, their calls are very distinct and have a wide variety of functions in the survival of the animal. The classic Trumpet call can be heard from long distances and is the most common communication mechanism heard among these birds. This type of call resembles a horn because the frequency can vary greatly. This call generally occurs when an animal is alarmed or feels threatened, the call acts as a warning or even a way in deterring incoming predators due to the abrupt volume of the noise being evoked.[50] More specifically referring to mating, the call that is most common among mating pairs is called the duet. This call happens when a pair has come together near breeding season. The duetting process can begin as separate trumpeting solos and can evolve into an almost simultaneous duet that is very similar in frequency and very difficult to tell the individual calls apart.[50]This performance of the pair is commonly associated with the particular movements mentioned above (head bobbing and wing movements) associated with the courtship. Also, the duet can aid in the coordination of a dual attack on a predator that is too close to the nest of a mated pair.[50] In terms of mate choice, the Trumpeter swan continuously returns to the mate from previous breeding terms, often the breeding pair will even return to their previous breeding grounds if the previous offspring were successful in that area.[51]

Though the range of the two species does not overlap, the trumpeter swan can hybridize with its close relative, the whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus), and hybrid birds have been observed in the wild, most likely as a result of interbreeding between wild trumpeter and vagrant or introduced whooper swans.[52][53]

Nesting and incubation behaviour

Trumpeter swan incubation.

The fabrication of a nest is an incredibly precise process that takes place over a series of 11 to 35 days and typically breeding pairs will begin construction in late April.[54] The time of year the nest-building process begins can slightly vary due to weather conditions in the previous year, if the environment was colder and wet the females may not be healthy enough to be mating right away and as a result, the nesting behavior might be slightly delayed. It is common to find nests of trumpeter swans surrounded by water or close to water. This is advantageous to the parents because it can reduce the risk of predation, can provide optimal foraging sources such as aquatic vegetation as well as ensure there is nearby water for when the cygnets are hatched.[54] The long duration of the nest building process is predominantly due to the nest being so large (1.2 to 3.6m in diameter) and fabricated mainly from submerged vegetation as well as grasses and grass-like plants.[54] It has been observed that adult Trumpeter swans do not directly bring the building materials directly to the nest building site. The males use a specific action that includes facing away from the nest and throwing organic materials over their shoulder moving closer and closer to the nesting area[55].Eventually when they arrive at the nesting site the two individuals of the mating pair are involved in the construction, but, as mentioned above the male spends the majority of its time doing the construction. During nest construction, female Trumpeter swans feed significantly more frequently than males in order to fuel up for laying the eggs.[56] This is greatly supported by the male counterpart of the species because ultimately if the female is keeping itself healthy it will, in the end, ensure healthy offspring which improves the fitness of the mating pair.

Typically a female Trumpeter swan will lay four to six eggs and will incubate them for 32 to 37 days until they hatch.[57] The eggs average 73 millimetres (2.9 in) wide, 113.5 millimetres (4.5 in) long, and weigh about 320 grams (11.3 oz).[19] The eggs are quite possibly the largest of any flying bird alive today, in comparison they are about 20% larger in dimensions and mass than those of an Andean condor (Vultur gryphus), which attains similar average adult weights, and more than twice as heavy as those of kori bustards (Ardeotis kori).[58][59][60]

After the eggs are laid it is the female that spends the majority of the time incubating, it has been observed that around every 20 minutes the female will stand up from incubating and reach down beneath itself to roll over the eggs with its bill before re-assuming the incubation position.[61] It can be inferred that this behaviour is used to ensure the eggs are kept an appropriate temperature on all sides, this is very important because exposure to the elements leads to high mortality rates in cygnets. The female only leaves the incubation process for brief recesses that last around 20 minutes. Before the female leaves for recess, it will cover the eggs with plant material and it has been observed that if the female does not cover the eggs the male will do so in the absence of the female.[62] This time away from the nest is primarily used for feeding, but the female has also been observed using this time for bathing and preening.[63] The only other time the female leaves the nest is when it must help the male chase away predators from their nesting territory.[64] It is highly uncommon for both members of a mating pair to be absent from the nest at the same time, there is generally always a male or a female present guarding the eggs.[65] The behavior of the male during and after the laying of the eggs can be best described as on alert. This is due to males being increasingly territorial and aggressive, particularly when a predator or conspecifics approach the nesting area.[64] Generally when females leave the nest during their brief recesses the males will stand and guard the eggs, although in some cases the males would even sit on the eggs in the absence of a female swan.[65]

Parental behaviour

Trumpeter swan brood

Males

After the meeting of the pair prior to mating or nest building, the male will often initiate courting calls which result in the duet mentioned above. Before and throughout the laying period, the male can be found dealing with the construction of the nest and collection of resources. As the eggs are being incubated by the female the male does not feed or sleep as often particularly when the female left the nest. These trends also were associated with more aggressive behaviors from the male, especially towards predators and other members of the species.[66] When it comes to parental behaviour, the male has already completed the majority of its role. With this in mind, the male does continue to be territorial and protective of the newly developing cygnets as well as allowing the female to replenish its nutrient reserves. This makes migration to wintering grounds possible and allows for more years of breeding.[66] Keeping the female of the mating pair healthy is important for Trumpeter swans because this species tends to only have one mate in its lifetime. A healthy female also improves the likelihood of having more successful clutches are well as better nesting experiences.[66] When cygnets are young it is common to see the male accompanying them in feeding recesses outside the nest.[67] This can fall under the category of the main male role in parenting being the protection of the offspring.

Females

The increased care and attention of the male to the young allowed for the female to feed more frequently and exert more energy toward the protection and overall health of the developing cygnets.[68] During the pre-laying/laying period the males are significantly more active than the females of the breeding pair. This is advantageous in because it aids in the fitness of the species by improving reproductive success by allowing the female, as mentioned above, to feed more frequently and overall replenish the energy stored in order to aid in incubation and other crucial activities.[68] When hatching occurs the females tend to not leave the nest, the only time a female may leave would be to chase away a nearby predator.[69] After hatching the cygnets are brooded for the first one to two days by the female, cygnets are also brooded when needed (when it is cold or at night) for the first few weeks of their lives.[70] Young offspring have a very close relationship with their parents in the first part of their lives spending the majority of their first few weeks with the female in the nest or in the water.[69] The young are able to swim within two days and usually are capable of feeding themselves after, at most, two weeks. The fledging stage is reached at roughly 3 to 4 months.[71] Fledlings tend to spend their first full winter with their parents and then they no longer need them.[70]

Conservation status

Three flying in Missouri
Wintering in British Columbia
Mated pair on a lake, Kenai National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska
Adult and three juvenile trumpeter swans on the shore of Woods Lake, near Oyama, British Columbia

Near extinction and rediscovery in Alaska

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the trumpeter swan was hunted heavily, for game or meat, for the soft swanskins used in powder puffs, and for their quills and feathers. This species is also unusually sensitive to lead poisoning from ingesting discarded lead shot from fishing weights while young. The Hudson's Bay Company captured thousands of swans annually with a total of 17,671 swans killed between 1853 and 1877. In 1908 Edward Preble wrote of the decline in the hunt with the number sold annually dropping from 1,312 in 1854 to 122 in 1877.[72] Sir John Richardson wrote in 1831 that the trumpeter "is the most common Swan in the interior of the fur-counties... It is to the trumpeter that the bulk of the Swan-skins imported by the Hudson's Bay Company belong."[73] By the early twentieth century breeding trumpeter swans were nearly extirpated in the United States, with a remnant population of fewer than 70 wild trumpeters in remote hot springs in or near Yellowstone National Park. Surprising news came from a 1950s aerial survey of Alaska's Copper River when several thousand trumpeters were discovered.[5] This population provided critical genetic stock to complement the tri-state (Montana/Idaho/Wyoming) population for re-introductions in other parts of the swan's historic range.

Historical range

In 1918 Joseph Grinnell wrote that trumpeter swans once bred in North America from northwestern Indiana west to Oregon in the U.S., and in Canada from James Bay to the Yukon, and they migrated as far south as Texas and southern California.[21] In 1960 Winston E. Banko also placed their breeding range as far south as Nebraska, Missouri, Illinois, northwestern Indiana, but in Michigan turned this line northwards, placing a hypothetical eastern boundary up through Ontario to western Quebec and the eastern shore of James Bay.[34] In 1984, Harry G. Lumsden posited that trumpeter swans may have been extirpated from eastern Canada by native people armed with firearms prior to the arrival of European explorers and noted archaeological remains of trumpeter swans as far east as Port au Choix, Newfoundland dating to 2,000 BCE. He cited historical observer records of what must have been breeding trumpeters, such as Father Hennepin's August report of swans on the Detroit River from Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie in 1679 and Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac's 1701 report of summering swans (July 23 – October 8) in the same area: "There are such large numbers of swans that the rushes among which they are massed might be taken for lilies."[74] In the eastern United States the breeding range is potentially extended to North Carolina by the detailed report of John Lawson (1701) that "Of the swans we have two sorts, the one we call Trompeters...These are the largest sort we have...when spring comes on they go the Lakes to breed" versus "The sort of Swans called Hoopers; are the least."[75]

Reintroduction

Early efforts to reintroduce this bird into other parts of its original range, and to introduce it elsewhere, have had modest success, as suitable habitats have dwindled and the released birds do not undertake migrations. More recently, the population in all three major population regions have shown sustained growth over the past thirty-year period. Data from the US Fish and Wildlife Service[76] show 400% growth in that period, with signs of increasing growth rates over time.

One impediment to the growth of the trumpeter swan population around the Great Lakes is the presence of a growing non-native mute swan population who compete for habitat.[8][77]

Alberta

One of the largest conservation sites for the trumpeter swan is located in Lois Hole Provincial Park. It is located adjacent to the renamed Trumpeter subdivision of Edmonton, Alberta, within Big Lake.

Idaho

Thousands of swans migrate through the Chain Lakes along the Coeur d'Alene River basin in the Idaho Panhandle. Due to historic mining in the area, an average of 52 swans died each year 2005-2021 from lead exposure.[78][79] There is an effort by local foundations, Idaho Department of Fish and Game, and the United States Environmental Protection Agency to clean up the area and help limit lead exposure of swans migrating through.[80]

Michigan

Joe Johnson, a biologist for the W.K. Kellogg Bird Sanctuary, part of Michigan State University’s Kellogg Biological Station, obtained trumpeter swans from Alaska for re-introduction to Michigan beginning in 1986. The population has grown via continued re-introductions and organic growth to 756 birds by 2015. The native swans have benefited from removal of non-native mute swans by the Michigan Department of Natural Resources beginning in the 1960s, with a decline from 15,000 mute swans in 2010 to 8,700 in 2015.[81]

Minnesota

As of 2013, the trumpeter swan is no longer listed as threatened in the state of Minnesota.[82] In the winter months, a large population of trumpeter swans can be seen in the city of Monticello, Minnesota. [83]

Ontario

The Ontario Trumpeter Swan Restoration Group started a conservation project in 1982, using eggs collected in the wild. Live birds have also been taken from the wild. Since then, 584 birds have been released in Ontario. Despite lead poisoning in the wild from shotgun pellets, the prospects for restoration are considered optimistic.[84] As of 2021, the population was between 2500 and 3000,[85] was stable, and no longer relied on rehabilitation facilities.[86]

Yellowstone National Park

Yellowstone provides only marginal habitat for trumpeter swans and therefore may only limited to occasional residents and wintering migrants. As of 2019, 27 trumpeter swans were observed in the park, 21 adults and 7 cygnets. Scientists attribute the decline in the park's population to the loss of nests and nesting sites because of spring flooding caused by climate change. [87] In 2019, 4 young swans were released in Hayden Valley, and 35 cygnets have been released over 7 years, though none of these cygnets have since nested in the park.[88]

See also

References

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Trumpeter swan: Brief Summary

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The trumpeter swan (Cygnus buccinator) is a species of swan found in North America. The heaviest living bird native to North America, it is also the largest extant species of waterfowl, with a wingspan of 185 to 250 cm (6 ft 2 in to 8 ft 2 in). It is the American counterpart and a close relative of the whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus) of Eurasia, and even has been considered the same species by some authorities. By 1933, fewer than 70 wild trumpeters were known to exist, and extinction seemed imminent, until aerial surveys discovered a Pacific population of several thousand trumpeters around Alaska's Copper River. Careful reintroductions by wildlife agencies and the Trumpeter Swan Society gradually restored the North American wild population to over 46,000 birds by 2010.

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