Although there is little information on communication and perception specific to lingcod, like many other species of Teleostei, they use vision, chemical perception via the nares, the lateral line system, and hearing to perceive their environment.
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; vibrations ; chemical
Lingcod are cryptically colored and spend most of their time hiding underneath overhangs, amongst rocks, and within holes. As adults, lingcod have long, sharp teeth to deter potential predators. Humans are the most significant predator of lingcod, which were considered overfished in the late 90's. Since then, multiple regulations have been put into place to reduce the annual harvest rates of lingcod. Other important predators include Stellar sea lions, California sea lions, harbor seals, and sharks.
Known Predators:
Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic
Body coloration of lingcod is cryptic and variable, but generally consists of dark shades of brownish-green with blotches of copper along the length of the body. The only color consistent among individuals is white, which appears on the ventral side of the gills. The first dorsal fin is larger than the second, and the two dorsal fins together extend nearly the entire length of the body. The mouth is wide and contains about 18 large, inward-curved, sharp teeth. They can grow as large as 36 kg, but average mass is 13 kg. Although mean length for lingcod is unknown, the largest individual on record was 152.4 cm (5 feet) long, and adult females tend to be larger than adult males.
Range mass: 36 (high) kg.
Average mass: 13 kg.
Range length: 152.4 (high) cm.
Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: female larger
Although lingcod can live for up to 25 years, most individuals live close to 20 years in the wild.
Range lifespan
Status: wild: 25 (high) years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 20 years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 20 years.
Lingcod are coastal fish that occupy submerged banks with dense communities of algae, and channels with strong currents flowing over and around rocky reefs. They avoid muddy and sandy bottoms, and stagnant areas. Lingcod have been found at depths up to 420 m, though the majority live in waters less than 100 m. Lingcod are tolerant of a broad range of water temperatures.
Range depth: 0 to 420 m.
Average depth: <100 m.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; saltwater or marine
Aquatic Biomes: benthic ; reef ; coastal
Ophiodon elongatus is native to the west coast of North America, from the Shumagin Islands in the Gulf of Alaska to Baja California, Mexico. Highest densities are found off the coast of British Columbia, Canada.
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); pacific ocean (Native )
Lingcod are ambush predators that eat anything that can fit in their mouths, especially fish and large invertebrates. Lingcod exhibit cannibalism and prey on various species of salmon and rockfish as well as Pacific herring and octopus.
Animal Foods: fish; eggs; mollusks; aquatic or marine worms; aquatic crustaceans; other marine invertebrates; zooplankton
Primary Diet: carnivore (Piscivore , Eats eggs, Eats non-insect arthropods, Molluscivore , Vermivore); planktivore
Lingcod are important secondary and tertiary consumers within the benthic community. They are ambush predators and prey upon squid, octopuses, crabs, fish, and smaller lingcod. They are also an important prey species for numerous species of marine mammal. Lingcod eggs are eaten by gastropod mollusks, crabs, echinoderms, kelp greenlings, and cabezon, while larvae and juveniles may be consumed by anything larger than themselves.
Little information is known of parasites specific to lingcod, however, they are known to host the nematode Cucullanus elongatus and the copepod Chondracanthus narium.
Commensal/Parasitic Species:
From 1943 to 1950, commercial landings of lingcod ranged from 326,000 to 950,000 kg per year, primarily due to strong markets for fish liver oil. From 1972 to 1982, landings significantly increased to 1,360,000 kg per year, due to rapid expansion of trawl fishing along the Pacific west coast. Since the late 1980's, lingcod landings have steadily declined, both in total weight and number of fish caught. In 1999, the commercial harvest peaked at 142,000 kg and was valued at $283,000. By 2009, commercial landings had decreased to around 57,000 kg, valued at $184,000. In 1980, the recreational catch totaled 626,945 fish, compared to 30,477 fish landed in 2008. This reduction reflects the catch limits imposed by management plans that were implemented by California Department of Fish and Game to conserve rockfish populations along the Pacific coast of the United States.
Positive Impacts: food ; source of medicine or drug
There are no known adverse effects of lingcod on humans.
The incubation period for lingcod eggs varies with water temperature, but usually lasts between 5 and 12 weeks. Eggs hatch during late winter or early spring. Newly hatched larvae are approximately 7 to 10 mm in length and are transported by ocean currents until they grow large enough to swim about freely. During the planktonic larval period, lingcod grow rapidly, feeding primarily on copepods and other small zooplankton. By mid-summer, when length reaches approximately 80 mm, lingcod larvae become demersal and settle in kelp or eelgrass beds. At this point, larvae begin feeding on juvenile Pacific herring and other small fish. By age two, juvenile lingcod migrate into shallow-water habitats shared by adult lingcod. Growth is rapid during the first 3 years of life. Throughout this period, both sexes display similar growth patterns, and in one year they grow an average of 27 cm. Studies have found that 3-year-old lingcod of either sex average around 50 cm in length. Starting at age 3, females grow faster with increasing age, and males grow more quickly when young. Males begin to mature at age 2 or about 50 cm in length, and females become sexually mature when by age 3 or about 76 cm in length. The number of eggs produced per female increases with size and age, and some egg masses have been reported to weigh as much as 6.8 kg. The largest specimen caught was reportedly 150 cm in length, and weighed 32 kg. Maximum age of lingcod is reported to be 25 years.
Lingcod have not been evaluated by the IUCN, and therefore, populations trends and potential conservation needs are currently unknown.
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
State of Michigan List: no special status
Adult lingcod reproduce sexually by means of external fertilization and exhibit both nesting and nest-tending activities. Males attract one or more females to his nesting site. Once at the nesting site, females deposit an egg mass consisting of 40,000 to 500,000 eggs within reef cracks and cavities. Females often lay their eggs in layers, with each layer fertilized before the next layer is laid. A single male fertilizes the egg masses of multiple females. Female lingcod remain monogamous within the breeding season and spawns with only one male, once per breeding season. Unlike males, which return each year to their nesting sites, females exhibit no site fidelity, and mates with a different male at a different location during the following season.
Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)
Adult lingcod spawn seasonally starting in late winter. Spawning takes place between December and April in shallow waters 3 to 10 m in depth over rocky reefs with strong tidal currents. Males become sexually mature by 2 years of age, and females become sexually mature between 3 and 5 years of age. Males migrate as early as September to near shore spawning grounds to establish territorial boundaries and nest sites. The territory of a single male often includes more than one nest site. If a male finds a suitable nesting site he may return to that same site every season until he is no longer capable of spawning. Once a male establishes his nest site, he drives off all other males and begins attracting females to his territory.
Breeding interval: Female lingcod breed once a year during a 5 month period starting in late winter.
Breeding season: Breeding occurs between December through April
Range number of offspring: 40,000 to 500,000.
Range gestation period: 5 to 12 weeks.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 3 to 5 years.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (External ); oviparous
Female lingcod abruptly leave the nesting site after depositing their eggs. Males are territorial during mating season and aggressively defend their nest against all intruders. There have even been reports of attacks on humans by male lingcod during the mating season. Males remains with fertilized eggs for 8 to 10 weeks throughout development and fan them with their pectoral tail fins to keep them oxygenated and clean. It is not unusual for a small male to protect a nest when the mature male is gone. Small males have also been known to guard loose egg masses that have detached from the reef and settled on the ocean floor. Lingcod eggs are vulnerable to numerous benthic predators; therefore, male nest guarding is important for survival of young.
Parental Investment: male parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Protecting: Male)
The lingcod or ling cod (Ophiodon elongatus), also known as the buffalo cod or cultus cod, is a fish of the greenling family Hexagrammidae. It is the only extant member of the genus Ophiodon.[1] A slightly larger, extinct species, Ophiodon ozymandias, is known from fossils from the Late Miocene of Southern California.[2]
Ophiodon elongatus is native to the North American west coast from Shumagin Islands in the Gulf of Alaska to Baja California, Mexico. It has been observed up to a size of 152 centimetres (60 in) and a weight of 59 kilograms (130 lb).[3] It is spotted in various shades of gray. The lingcod is a popular eating fish, and is thus prized by anglers. Though not closely related to either ling or cod, the name "lingcod" originated because it somewhat resembles those fish. Around 20% of lingcods have blue-green to turquoise flesh.[4]p. 298 The colour is destroyed by cooking.[5] The colour may be due to biliverdin, but this has not been established beyond doubt.[6]
Lingcod are endemic to the west coast of North America, with the center of abundance off the coast of British Columbia. They are found on the bottom, with most individuals occupying rocky areas at depths of 10 to 100 m (32 to 328 ft). Tagging studies have shown lingcod are a largely nonmigratory species, with colonization and recruitment occurring in localized areas only.[7]
Starting in October, lingcod migrate to nearshore spawning grounds. The males migrate first, and establish nest sites in strong current areas in rock crevices or on ledges. Spawning takes place between December and March, and females leave the nest site immediately after depositing eggs. Males actively defend the nest from predators until the eggs hatch in early March through late April.
The larvae are pelagic until late May or early June, when they settle to the bottom as juveniles. Initially they inhabit eelgrass beds, then move to flat, sandy areas that are not the typical habitat of older lingcod. They eventually settle in habitats of similar relief and substrate as older lingcod, but remain at shallower depths for several years.
Females and males mature at age three to five years (61–75 centimetres (24–30 in)) and two years of age (45 centimetres (18 in)), respectively. An adult male can be distinguished externally from a female by the presence of a small, conical papilla behind the anal vent. Up to age two, males and females grow at similar rates, with both reaching an average length of 45 centimetres (18 in). After age two, females grow faster than males, with the growth of males tapering off at about age eight, and females continuing to grow until about age 12 to 14. Lingcod live a maximum of about 36 years,[8] reaching a maximum size around 150 centimetres (59 in).[9] Off the coast of Alaska, many reach 70 pounds (32 kg).
Lingcod are voracious predators, feeding on nearly anything they can fit in their mouths, including invertebrates and many species of fish, such as herring (Clupea pallasii), salmon, and Pacific hake (Merluccius productus). One of their favorite foods is smaller octopuses, and they also readily devour large rockfish. Lingcod that survive the larval stages have few predators themselves, and are vulnerable mainly to marine mammals, such as sea lions and harbor seals.
In 1977, Dr. Dick Beamish and Doris Chilton of the Pacific Biological Station published an article showing that cross sections of the fourth to eighth fin rays from the second dorsal fin provided a method for estimating the age of lingcod.[10][11] This method has since been validated by a mark-recapture study in which lingcod received an injection of oxytetracycline. Other methods of aging, such as those using scales and otoliths, were found to underestimate ages for older fish.
Ages are determined from fins in much the same manner as for other aging structures: sections of varying thickness are examined under a microscope, and the annuli, or rings, that are formed for each year of growth are counted and used to estimate the age. The cross sections must be made at right angles to the length of the fin ray, and it is therefore important that fins be dried flat, with the cut surface at right angles to the fin rays. In addition, the distance the section is cut from the fin ray base is important, so all fins should be collected with the bases intact.[12][13]
One problem associated with using fin rays to age older fish is the center may be resorbed, resulting in the loss of the first two annuli. It is therefore necessary to determine an average width for the first two annuli by examining the fins from juvenile fish. This measurement can then be used to estimate the position of the third annulus on older fish.
This article incorporates material from Fisheries and Oceans Canada. This reproduction was not done in affiliation with or with the endorsement of Fisheries and Oceans Canada.
The lingcod or ling cod (Ophiodon elongatus), also known as the buffalo cod or cultus cod, is a fish of the greenling family Hexagrammidae. It is the only extant member of the genus Ophiodon. A slightly larger, extinct species, Ophiodon ozymandias, is known from fossils from the Late Miocene of Southern California.
Ophiodon elongatus is native to the North American west coast from Shumagin Islands in the Gulf of Alaska to Baja California, Mexico. It has been observed up to a size of 152 centimetres (60 in) and a weight of 59 kilograms (130 lb). It is spotted in various shades of gray. The lingcod is a popular eating fish, and is thus prized by anglers. Though not closely related to either ling or cod, the name "lingcod" originated because it somewhat resembles those fish. Around 20% of lingcods have blue-green to turquoise flesh.p. 298 The colour is destroyed by cooking. The colour may be due to biliverdin, but this has not been established beyond doubt.
