African lions are the only major predator of adult brown hyenas. Spotted hyenas can also kill adult brown hyenas, but encounters between the two species rarely occurs due to their differing habitat preferences. Brown hyena cubs are susceptible to predation from lions, black-backed jackals and occasionally African wild dogs. Group living likely reduces predation of brown hyena cubs by these animals. When a predator approaches the den, the smallest cubs, usually those under 4 months in age, retreat underground while older cubs stand just outside the entrance with their hair erected.
Adult brown hyenas are most at danger when approaching a lion kill, and they sometimes delay feeding for up to 30 minutes after the lions have left to ensure their safety. They also use raised hackles and a loud, high-pitched cry to alert others of approaching lions.
Known Predators:
Brown hyenas are medium to large carnivores, averaging 40.7 kg in mass with a range of 34.2 to 72.6 kg. Body length averages 144 cm with a range of 130 to 160 cm. Owens and Owens (1996) found no significant evidence of sexual dimorphism between males and females. However, the average mass of males and females is sometimes listed separately at 47 kg and 42 kg respectively (Stuart and Stuart, 2001). Both sexes average 78.7 cm in height at the shoulder.
Hyaena brunnea is the second largest member of the family Hyaenidae, surpassed in size only by spotted hyenas. Like all members of the family, the forelegs of brown hyenas are significantly longer and more massively built than the hind legs, giving their profile a sloping appearance as if they were constantly walking uphill. The forefeet are also noticeably larger than the hind feet, and the chest, shoulders, neck and skull are heavily built. The teeth of H. brunnea are massive, even in comparison to other large carnivores. The upper carnassial tooth is particularly large and well developed as an adaptation for crushing bone.
The most obvious way to distinguish Hyaena brunnea from other members of its family is by the long, shaggy hair, which is usually dark brown to black on the body and tan on the shoulders and neck. Hair on the neck and back can reach 30.5 cm in length. This is in contrast to short hair on the face and ears, as well as the legs, which are horizontally striped. The erect ears are larger and more pointed than those of spotted hyenas and resemble those of striped hyenas. The tail is relatively short and bushy, with roughly the same coloration as the body.
Range mass: 34.2 to 72.6 kg.
Average mass: 40.7 kg.
Range length: 130 to 160 cm.
Average length: 144 cm.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike
In the southern Kalahari Dessert, 86% of brown hyena cubs survived to at least 15 months of age. Hunting by farmers is a common cause of death for young adults and subadults who wander out of their territory. Mature adults typically have a low mortality rate, and their greatest threat is the presence of larger carnivores such as African lions. For individuals that reach old age (around 10 years), tooth wear is the limiting factor for survival, and most die as a result of inadequate nutrition.
Range lifespan
Status: wild: 12 (high) years.
Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 13 (high) years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 12.0 years.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 13.0 years.
Brown hyenas prefer to den in arid to semi-arid grassland and savanna biomes at no higher than 1500 m in elevation, but are also found in desert regions that receive less than 100 mm of rain annually. By consuming fruit with a high water content as an alternative to fresh water sources they are able to survive in drier regions than spotted hyenas, their close relative. Den sites are typically located in sandy areas near large rocks or vegetative cover, which provides relief from the heat. Brown hyenas frequently scavenge for food along coastlines.
Range elevation: 0 to 1500 m.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: desert or dune ; savanna or grassland
Hyaena brunnea is native to the Ethiopian biogeographic region. Its current distribution is limited mainly to southernmost Africa, including the Kalahari and Namib Deserts as well as the Skeleton Coast, which borders the southern Atlantic Ocean. Hyaena brunnea is not frequently found north of the Angola-Namibia border or south of the Orange River in South Africa.
Biogeographic Regions: ethiopian (Native )
Hyaena brunnea is a generalist and a highly opportunistic feeder. Individuals primarily scavenge for carrion, using their acute sense of smell to locate carcasses and their specialized teeth to crush bone. Brown hyenas do not typically hunt live prey, but when an opportunity arises, they do not hesitate to pursue small birds or mammals over short distances. Diets vary from inland Botswana populations to those in the Namib Desert and along the Skeleton Coast. The diet of inland populations is largely composed of carcass remains from the kills of other large carnivores, such as African lions, and leopards. Frequently consumed food items in this area include springbok, springhare, gemsbok and Burchell's zebra. Populations living closer to the Skeleton Coast in western Namibia primarily feed on black-backed jackals and South African fur seal pups that have wandered from their parents or drowned. In both regions, birds such as the crowned plovers and helmeted guineafowl also make up a significant portion of their diet. In addition to meat, brown hyenas consume a high volume of tsama melon (Citrullus vulgaris), hookeri melon (Cucumis hookeri) and gemsbok melon (Citrullus naudinianus) as supplements for fresh water during the dry season. This feature of their diet allows brown hyenas to live in more arid regions than their close relative, the spotted hyena. Excess food that cannot be consumed in a single feeding is sometimes buried under shrubs or bushes and recovered the following day. Brown hyenas are also known to be coprophagic, which is thought to reduce water loss in arid land species.
Animal Foods: birds; mammals; reptiles; fish; eggs; carrion ; insects; aquatic crustaceans
Plant Foods: leaves; fruit
Other Foods: dung
Foraging Behavior: stores or caches food
Primary Diet: carnivore (Scavenger )
Fossil records suggest that Hyaena brunnea has existed in Africa since the late Pliocene. This species was formerly known as Hyaena brunnea, and therefore it is found under this name in some literature.
Hyaena brunnea has a well-developed sense of smell, which plays an important role in con- and heterospecific communication. When individuals meet, a thorough scent examination of the neck, head, back and anal gland takes place. Scent markings throughout the territory play an important role in communicating valuable information from one clan member to another without direct physical interaction. The anal secretions of brown hyenas consist of two elements. The first is a black paste with an odor that fades relatively quickly and conveys the message to other clan members that an area has recently been searched for food, which helps reduce foraging time in areas devoid of resources. The second element is a whitish paste that can last up to 30 days. These secretions are used to express territorial boundaries to members of other clans. Members of both sexes generally leave these secretions by squatting and rubbing their anal gland over a stick or a stalk of grass. The black paste is always observed above the white paste on a marked object. Individuals of both sexes scent mark 2.6 times per km on average, but markings are left more frequently towards the boundaries of the territory. Defecation sites are also used to convey scent messages about what individuals have recently eaten, and are typically found near the den or around territorial boundaries.
In addition to scent markings, brown hyenas communicate using two visual displays via piloerection of the long fur on their hackles. In an aggressive display, the tail is laid against the back, the ears are alert and the mouth is closed. Defensive displays are characterized by an open mouth and flattened ears. Cubs communicate their desire to suckle by pushing on the female’s mammary glands with alternating front paws. Cubs also groom one another and the adults as a way of bonding. Vocal communication is also an important part of social behavior in brown hyenas. Whines and squeals are used as a warning for approaching predators and as a sign of submission to dominant individuals. A relatively quiet call is used to order cubs into the den. Deep growls sometimes accompany a meeting between rivals from separate clans, and shrieks are used to announce the presence of other predators at a newly discovered carcass.
Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Other Communication Modes: pheromones ; scent marks
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Brown hyenas are considered near threatened with a decreasing trend by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has listed them as endangered since 1970. It is difficult to make accurate population estimates of brown hyenas due to their nocturnal lifestyle and low population density. Low population numbers are probably due to sparse resources in the Kalahari and Namib Deserts, as well as persecution from livestock farmers in the area. The establishment of national parks and game reserves in Namibia and Botswana offer the best hope for preserving brown hyena populations.
US Federal List: endangered
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: near threatened
Hyaena brunnea is viewed as a livestock killer and crop pest by melon farmers. In many cases this is a misconception, with the true killers being African lions, black-backed jackals and spotted hyenas. It has been estimated that over the course of a year at a single cattle post, brown hyenas are responsible for $94 worth of damage to livestock, out of an annual total of $744 worth of damage caused by all predators. On average, it is estimated that brown hyenas kill 1.8 domestic animals per ranch annually. Many farmers set indiscriminate traps and shoot brown hyenas in an attempt to keep their livestock and crops safe.
Negative Impacts: crop pest
Some pastoralists in southern Africa feel that brown hyenas are beneficial as a target for ecotourism, which brings money and jobs into the region. Brown hyenas also benefit humans by controlling parasite populations that rely on animal carcasses to feed and reproduce. By reducing the number of carcasses, brown hyenas help decrease chances of parasitic infestation to humans, livestock and domestic pets.
Positive Impacts: ecotourism ; controls pest population
As a scavenger, Hyaena brunnea plays an important role in eliminating the remains of old carcasses from its environment. These carcasses are used as breeding grounds for many parasites and diseases if they are left to decay on their own. Brown hyenas are host to a number of endo- and ectoparasites, including fleas, tapeworms, nematodes, nymphs, mites and flies from the family Hippoboscidae.
Brown hyenas help regulate populations of black-backed jackals and South African fur seals through predation. They also alter predation frequencies of cheetahs and leopards by stalking them during hunts and then driving them off of their kills. Brown hyenas also disperse the seeds of tsama melons (Citrullus vulgaris), hookeri melons (Cucumis hookeri) and gemsbok melons (Citrullus naudinianus) at defecation sites.
Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds; biodegradation
Commensal/Parasitic Species:
Brown hyenas typically mate during the African dry season from May to August, following a brief courtship that may last from 3 to 6 nights. They generally exhibit one of two complex mating systems. The first is a clan-based polygynous system, which only occurs when the clan’s alpha male is a non-related individual from another clan. Related males and females generally do not show sexual interest in one another, however males born into a clan have been observed to rise to the status of alpha male and reproduce with clan females on rare occasions. In this first scenario, the alpha male mates with all clan females that are sexually receptive at any given time. He aggressively defends the clan from male intruders using piloerection and biting when necessary. If a nomadic female ventures into the clan’s territory, he may also mate with her. The second mating system consists of the sexually receptive clan females mating primarily with one or more nomadic males that venture into the clan’s territory. This system is either polygynous or promiscuous, with females occasionally mating with as many as four different males. In this scenario, both male and female clan members tolerate the presence of nomadic males. Nomadic individuals likely locate clans by sense of smell, using territorial scent markings and latrine sights made by the clan.
Brown hyena clans exhibit cooperative breeding. Mothers suckle the cubs of other females, and all clan members take part in bringing food back to the den for cubs that are too young to hunt.
Mating System: polygynous ; polygynandrous (promiscuous) ; cooperative breeder
Female brown hyenas may have more than one estrus cycle per year (i.e., polyestrus). Cubs are born with their eyes closed after an average gestation of 97 days. Newborns weigh an average of 693.2 g and are similar in coloration to their parents, but with shorter fur. Litters range in size from 1 to 5 individuals per female (2.3 on average) with alpha females generally having a higher lifetime reproductive output than subordinates. Cubs are almost entirely dependent on their mother’s milk for the first 3 months of their lives, but they may also occasionally suckle from other clan females. Weaning takes place when the cubs are 3 to 12 months old. Once weaning begins, their diet is gradually supplemented by red meat brought back to the den by other clan members. Cubs spend most of their time within or very close to the den until they reach 15 months of age. From 15 to 30 months of age, individuals are referred to as subadults and are capable of foraging independently. Females become sexually mature by 24 months, and males become sexually mature by 40 months. Females may wait anywhere from 12 to 41 months between successive litters.
Breeding interval: Breeding frequency ranges from 12 to 41 months, and in some cases is largely dependent on the presence of nomadic males.
Breeding season: Breeding primarily takes place during the African dry season (May to August), but may also be based on the spontaneous arrival of nomadic males.
Range number of offspring: 1 to 5.
Average number of offspring: 2.3.
Average gestation period: 97 days.
Range weaning age: 3 to 14 months.
Range time to independence: 15 to 30 months.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 24 months.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 40 months.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; viviparous
Brown hyena mothers usually give birth to their cubs in private satellite dens and then introduce the cubs to the clan’s communal den before they are 4 months old. Mothers nurse their cubs until they are at least 10 months old (in some cases up to 14 months), but it is common for other lactating females to help by allowing non-offspring to nurse as well. Young cubs sometimes indicate a desire to suckle by pushing on the mother’s mammary glands with their front paws, a behavior know as “milk treading”. A typical nursing bout lasts for 25 to 30 minutes, but is sometimes extended if begging persists. Cubs less than 4 months old are fed 2 to 3 times per night, while older, weaning cubs often suckle only once every few nights. During weaning and prior to independence, mothers remain somewhat partial to their own offspring, but all clan members (both male and female) bring back scavenged food for the cubs. Adults carry food back to the den in their mouths and do not regurgitate as in some mammals. Females spend short periods of time sleeping and socializing with cubs near the den between nightly hunts, but both males and females typically sleep further away from the den during the day. Although fathers bring food back to the den, they do so less frequently than females and no more often than other clan males. Aside from bringing back food, paternal care by the alpha male also includes protecting cubs from predators and intruders from other clans. Mothers and other adult females also share in this task. Most cubs become independent by 15 months of age, but may still rely on communal food at the den until they reach 30 months of age.
Parental Investment: male parental care ; female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); post-independence association with parents
The brown hyena (Hyaena brunnea) is dark brown to black in colour with a sloped back, white neck and pointed ears. The front legs are stronger and better developed than the hind legs. All legs have a unique stripe pattern, which allow us to distinguish one hyena from another. Brown hyenas primarily scavenge their food. They feed on carcasses but also on fruit, bird eggs and insects. They also kill small mammals for food, although this behaviour is infrequent. They are unable to take down large prey items as their legs are not strong enough to do so. The main threat to the survival of these animals is human persecution. Although brown hyenas are perceived to be the killers of domestic livestock, their foraging strategy (described above) makes them unlikely livestock hunters. However, because of this perception, brown hyenas are often managed with lethal methods such as guns, poison and gin traps. The species is nocturnal and wide ranging, and despite being social animals, brown hyenas typically forage alone. These attributes make them very difficult to detect in the wild. This elusiveness probably explains why, approximately 40 years ago, brown hyenas were classified as endangered. However, today, thanks to the help of camera traps, we’ve found that brown hyenas are much more common than was previously thought. The Tswalu Brown Hyena Project was recently launched at Tswalu Kalahari Reserve in the Northern Cape Province in South Africa. The team is studying the diet, population dynamic and conflicts with farmers. Follow the blog for more information about the project and about brown hyenas. For more information visit the MammalMAP virtual museum or blog.
The brown hyena (Parahyaena brunnea), also called strandwolf,[4] is a species of hyena found in Namibia, Botswana, western and southern Zimbabwe,[5] southern Mozambique and South Africa.[6] It is the only extant species in the genus Parahyaena. It is currently the rarest species of hyena.[7] The largest remaining brown hyena population is located in the southern Kalahari Desert and coastal areas in Southwest Africa.[8] The global population of brown hyena is estimated by IUCN at a number between 4,000 and 10,000 and its conservation status is marked as near threatened in the IUCN Red List.[1]
Brown hyenas are distinguished from other species by their long shaggy dark brown coat, pointed ears, and short tail.[9] Their legs are striped brown and white, and adults have a distinct cream-colored fur ruff around their necks.[10] Erectile hairs up to 305 mm (12.0 in) in length cover the neck and back and bristles during agonistic behavior.[6] Body length is 144 cm (57 in) on average with a range of 130–160 cm (51–63 in).[11] Shoulder height is 70–80 cm (28–31 in) and the tail is 25–35 cm (9.8–13.8 in) long.[1] Unlike the larger spotted hyena, there are no sizable differences between the sexes,[12] although males may be slightly larger than females.[6] An average adult male weighs 40.2–43.7 kg (89–96 lb), while an average female weighs 37.7–40.2 kg (83–89 lb).[6] Brown hyenas have powerful jaws, and young animals can crack the leg bones of springboks in five minutes, though this ability deteriorates with age and dental wear.[7] The skulls of brown hyenas are larger than those of the closely related striped hyena, and their dentition is more robust, indicating a less generalized dietary adaptation.[13]
Today, the brown hyena only inhabits Southern Africa, but in the past it lived also in the Iberian Peninsula and perhaps in other parts of Europe, indicated by fossils found in the area of Granada from the Upper Pliocene.[14] It inhabits desert areas, semi-desert, and open woodland savannahs.[15] It can survive close to urban areas by scavenging. The brown hyena is not dependent on the ready availability of water sources for frequent drinking and favors rocky, mountainous areas, as these provide shade.[8] It has home ranges of 233–466 km2 (90–180 sq mi) in size.[16]
In the Kalahari, 80% of a brown hyena's activity time is spent at night, searching for food in an area on spanning 31.1 km (19.3 mi) on average, with territories of 54.4 km (33.8 mi) having been recorded.[17] They may cache excess food in shrubs or holes and recover it within 24 hours.[6]
Brown hyenas have a social hierarchy comparable to that of wolves, with a mated pair and their offspring. They live in clans composed of extended families of four to six individuals.[9] Clans defend their territory, and all members cooperate in raising cubs.[9] Territories are marked by 'pasting',[18] during which the hyena deposits secretions from its large anal gland, which is located below the base of the tail and produces a black and white paste, on vegetation and boulders.[15] Brown hyenas maintain a stable clan hierarchy through ritualized aggressive displays and mock fights. A brown hyena male can move up in rank by killing a higher ranking male in confrontation, while the alpha female is usually just the oldest female in the clan.[9] Emigration is common in brown hyena clans, particularly among young males, which will join other groups upon reaching adulthood.[6]
Brown hyenas are primarily scavengers the bulk of whose diet consists of carcasses killed by larger predators, but they may supplement their diet with rodents, insects, eggs, fruit and fungi (the desert truffle Kalaharituber pfeilii).[19] As they are poor hunters, live prey makes up only a small proportion of their diet: in the southern Kalahari, species such as springhare, springbok lambs, bat-eared foxes and korhaans constitute only 4.2% of their overall diet,[17] while on the Namib coast, cape fur seal pups compose 2.9% of their food.[20] They have an exceptional sense of smell and can locate carcasses kilometers away.[15] They are aggressive kleptoparasites, frequently appropriating the kills of black-backed jackals, cheetahs and leopards.[21] Single brown hyenas may charge at leopards with their jaws held wide open and can tree adult male leopards;[21] they have been observed treeing leopards even when no kill was in contention.[22] In the Kalahari Desert, they are often the dominant mammalian carnivores present because of this behavior and the relative scarcity of lions, spotted hyenas, and packs of African wild dogs. In areas where their territories overlap, brown hyenas may, on rare occasions, be killed by spotted hyenas and lions.[1] Brown hyena cubs are also susceptible to being killed by wild dogs and jackals.[11]
The brown hyena does not have a mating season.[16] Female brown hyenas are polyestrous and typically produce their first litter when they are two years old. They mate primarily from May to August. Males and females in the same clan usually do not mate with each other, rather females will mate with nomadic males.[15] Clan males display no resistance to this behavior, and will assist the females in raising their cubs.[7] Females give birth in dens, which are hidden in remote sand dunes far from the territories of spotted hyenas and lions. The gestation period is around 3 months.[15] Mothers generally produce one litter every 20 months. Usually, only the dominant female breeds, but if two litters are born in the same clan, the mothers will nurse each other's cubs, though favoring their own.[7] Litters usually consist of 1–5 cubs, which weigh 1 kg (2.2 lb) at birth.[6] Unlike spotted hyenas,[7] brown hyenas are born with their eyes closed, and open them after eight days. Cubs are weaned at 12 months and leave their dens after 18 months.[6] Also unlike spotted hyenas, all adult members of the clan will carry food back to the cubs.[7] They are not fully weaned and do not leave the vicinity of their den until they reach 14 months of age.[6] Brown hyenas reach full size at an age of around 30 months[15] and have a life span of about 12 to 15 years.[16]
The global brown hyena population is estimated to comprise 4,000 to 10,000 individuals.[8][1] It is listed as Near Threatened in the IUCN Red List.[1] The major threat to the brown hyena is human persecution, based on the mistaken belief that it is harmful to livestock. Farmers find brown hyenas scavenging on livestock carcasses and wrongly assume that they have killed their property.[17] Brown hyena body parts are also occasionally used for traditional medicines and rituals. The brown hyena is not in high demand for trophy hunting.[8]
There are several conservation areas that are home to the brown hyena, including the Etosha National Park in Namibia, the Central Kalahari Game Reserve in Botswana and the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park.[8] The maintenance of these protected areas aids in the conservation of these animals. Educational campaigns are being utilized to promote awareness about hyenas and dispel prevailing myths, while problem individuals are removed from farmlands and urbanized areas.[8]
The brown hyena (Parahyaena brunnea), also called strandwolf, is a species of hyena found in Namibia, Botswana, western and southern Zimbabwe, southern Mozambique and South Africa. It is the only extant species in the genus Parahyaena. It is currently the rarest species of hyena. The largest remaining brown hyena population is located in the southern Kalahari Desert and coastal areas in Southwest Africa. The global population of brown hyena is estimated by IUCN at a number between 4,000 and 10,000 and its conservation status is marked as near threatened in the IUCN Red List.
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