Associations
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Foodplant / parasite
subcortical pycnium of Cronartium ribicola parasitises stem of Pinus monticola
Remarks: season: 3-6
Other: major host/prey
Comments
provided by eFloras
Pinus monticola is the most important western source for matchwood. Its wood lacks the sugary exudates seen in P . lambertiana .
Western white pine ( Pinus monticola ) is the state tree of Idaho.
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- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Description
provided by eFloras
Trees to 70m; trunk to 2.5m diam., straight; crown narrowly conic, becoming broad and flattened. Bark gray, distinctly platy, plates scaly. Branches nearly whorled, spreading-ascending; twigs slender, pale red-brown, rusty puberulent and slightly glandular (rarely glabrous), aging purple-brown or gray, smooth. Buds ellipsoid or cylindric, rust-colored, 0.4--0.5cm, slightly resinous. Leaves 5 per fascicle, spreading to ascending, persisting 3--4 years, 4--10cm ´ 0.7--1mm, straight, slightly twisted, pliant, blue-green, abaxial surface without evident stomatal lines, adaxial surfaces with evident stomatal lines, margins finely serrulate, apex broadly to narrowly acute; sheath 1--1.5cm, shed early. Pollen cones ellipsoid, 10--15mm, yellow. Seed cones maturing in 2 years, shedding seeds and falling soon thereafter, clustered, pendent, symmetric, lance-cylindric to ellipsoid-cylindric before opening, broadly lanceoloid to ellipsoid-cylindric when open, 10--25cm, creamy brown to yellowish, without purple or gray tints, resinous, stalks to 2cm; umbo terminal, depressed. Seeds compressed, broadly obovoid-deltoid; body 5--7mm, red-brown; wing 2--2.5cm. 2 n =24.
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- cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
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- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Habitat & Distribution
provided by eFloras
Montane moist forests, lowland fog forests; 0--3000m; Alta., B.C.; Calif., Idaho, Mont., Nev., Oreg., Wash.
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- cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
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- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Synonym
provided by eFloras
Strobus monticola (Douglas ex D. Don) Rydberg
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- cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
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- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Common Names
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
western white pine
mountain white pine
Idaho white pine
silver pine
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Cover Value
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term:
coverWestern white pine provides nesting, thermal, and foraging cover for a variety of birds [
52]; it also provides hiding and thermal cover for elk [
19].
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Description
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
monoecious,
treeWestern white pine is a native, evergreen, long-lived (400+ years), monoecious tree [
9,
11,
16,
44]. It can reach 200 feet (60 m) in height and 8 feet (2.4 m) in d.b.h. The needles, 2 to 4 inches (5-10 cm) long, are in bundles of five. The bark on young trees is smooth and grayish green but on mature trees becomes grayish brown, scaley, and separated into rectangular plates [
16]. The crown is narrow and composed of regularly spaced branches [
1]. In dense stands western white pine self-prunes well, leaving a long, clean bole [
16]. The root system consists of a taproot and lateral roots which can spread up to 26 feet (8 m). Most (75 percent) of the lateral roots are in the upper 24 inches (60 cm) of soil [
11]. The male strobili are yellow, and the female strobili are reddish purple. Mature female strobili are 5 to 15 inches (12-38 cm) in length [
44]. The early growth of western white pine is not rapid, but it is the fastest growing sapling and pole-sized tree in the Northern Rockies [
8,
13].
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Distribution
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Western white pine occurs in the Pacific Northwest. The northern boundary of its range is at Quesnel Lake, British Columbia, latitude 52 deg. 30 min. N., and the southern boundary is at Tulare County, California, latitude 35 deg. 51 min. N. The western boundary is marked by the Pacific Coast, and the eastern boundary is at Glacier National Park, Montana. Western white pine reaches its greatest size and best stand and commercial development in northern Idaho and adjacent parts of Montana, Washington, and British Columbia [
11].
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Fire Ecology
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
fire regime,
lichenMature western white pine, with its moderately thick bark (1.5 inches [3 cm]), moderately flammable foliage, height, and evanescent lower limbs, is rated moderate in fire resistance [
5,
11,
56]. However, dense stands, lichen growth, and resinous bark can decrease western white pine's resistance to fire [
5]. Young trees with their thin bark are very susceptible to lethal damage by fire [
12].
FIRE REGIMES : Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the
FEIS home page under "Find FIRE REGIMES".
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Fire Management Considerations
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
duff,
fire exclusion,
forest,
prescribed fire,
stand-replacing fire,
wildfireWestern white pine is a fire-dependent, seral species. Fire exclusion and white pine blister rust have decreased western white pine stocking from 44 percent in 1941 to 5 percent in 1979 [
11]. Periodic, stand-replacing fire or other disturbance is needed to remove competing conifers and allow western white pine to develop in early seres [
5,
8,
11,
67]. Slash burning: Dry sites in the western white pine forest type respond poorly to slash burning, while moist sites respond favorably [
24]. Stark [
57] provides information on how to estimate nutrient losses from the harvest and slash burning of a western white pine stand. The use of chemical retardant around leave trees in selective cuts has been found to be effective in reducing cambium damage when slash concentrations are light or moderate [
51]. For effective fire hazard abatement the recommended Federal slash hazard index is 11 when planning a prescribed fire in western white pine slash. An index of less than 9 will provide little reduction, and greater than 12 generates risk of fire escape [
39]. Reinhardt and others [
49] provide information on prescribed fire, slash disposal, duff consumption, and management considerations after harvest in western white pine stands in northern Idaho. Wildlife: Prescribed fire has been recommended in western white pine stands to maintain areas of abundant browse for elk [
31]. Other: After wildfire it is recommended that salvage operations begin within the first 2 years [
46]. Peterson and Ryan [
42] have developed a model based on site, fire, and silvicultural information to predict conifer mortality after wildfire for long-term planning.
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Growth Form (according to Raunkiær Life-form classification)
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. More info for the term:
phanerophytePhanerophyte
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Habitat characteristics
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term:
herbaceousWestern white pine is restricted to climates characterized by dry summers and a predominance of winter precipitation [
72]. The most extensive and best stands of western white pine are found in the river bottoms and less steep lower slopes of the Priest, Coeur d'Alene, St. Joe, and Clearwater River basins [
72]. In British Columbia, western white pine is a minor species on moderately dry to wet, nutrient-medium to nutrient-rich sites in the maritime and submaritime climates [
23]. Here, western white pine requires sites fairly rich in calcium and magnesium [
25]. However, in the coastal Northwest, western white pine becomes abundant only on poor sites, where it can outcompete Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and other conifers. It does well on unproductive, gravelly soils in the Puget Sound area and reportedly thrives at the edges of bogs on the Olympic Peninsula [
1]. Soils: Western white pine grows on a wide variety of soils within its range, the majority of which have been classified as Spodosols [
11]. Along the West Coast, it attains best development on deep, porous soils, but it is most common on poor, sandy soils. In northern Idaho and other inland sites, it is found on shallow to deep soils, with the surface layers composed of loess or loessial-like material. Parent materials include granite, shist, basalt, and sedimentary rocks. The pH ranges from 4.5 to 6.8 with a mean of 5.4 [
11]. Elevation and topography: Western white pine is generally a montane species, but grows at a wide range of elevations [
11,
72]. Elevational ranges vary as follows [
11]: Area Feet Meters British Columbia 0 to 1,480 0 to 450 Vancouver Island, BC 0 to 3,940 0 to 1,200 California 6,000 to 10,990 1,830 to 3350 Idaho 1,540 to 5,910 500 to 1,800 Montana 1,540 to 5,910 500 to 1,800 Oregon 6,000 to 7,020 1,830 to 2140 Washington 0 to 6,070 0 to 1,850 Associated species: In Washington, Oregon, and the Inland Empire, western white pine grows in communities that are rich in other woody and herbaceous flora, but in the Sierra Nevada associated vegetation is usually sparse [
11]. In addition to those previously listed under Distribution and Occurrence, overstory associates include Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), noble fir (A. concolor), whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis), foxtail pine (P. balfouriana), limber pine (P. flexilis), sugar pine (P. lambertiana), Jeffrey pine (P. jeffreyi), quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), and paper birch (Betula papyrifera) [
11]. Understory associates include Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia), huckleberry (Vaccinium spp.), willow (Salix spp.), honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.), currant, Rocky Mountain maple (Acer glabrum), snowberry (Symphoricarpos spp.), ocean-spray (Holodiscus discolor), serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), pachistima (Pachistima myrsinites), sedges (Carex spp.), pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens), false-solomon's-seal (Smilacina spp.), wild ginger (Asarum caudatum), and queencup beadlily [
11].
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Habitat: Cover Types
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):
205 Mountain hemlock
206 Engelmann spruce - subalpine fir
207 Red fir
210 Interior Douglas-fir
212 Western larch
213 Grand fir
215 Western white pine
218 Lodgepole pine
224 Western hemlock
226 Coastal true fir - hemlock
227 Western redcedar - western hemlock
228 Western redcedar
229 Pacific Douglas-fir
230 Douglas-fir - western hemlock
231 Port-Orford-cedar
237 Interior ponderosa pine
247 Jeffrey pine
256 California mixed subalpine
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Habitat: Ecosystem
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):
FRES22 Western white pine
FRES23 Fir - spruce
FRES24 Hemlock - Sitka spruce
FRES25 Larch
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Habitat: Plant Associations
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):
More info for the term:
forestK001 Spruce - cedar - hemlock forest
K002 Cedar - hemlock - Douglas-fir forest
K003 Silver fir - Douglas-fir forest
K004 Fir - hemlock forest
K005 Mixed conifer forest
K007 Red fir forest
K012 Douglas-fir forest
K013 Cedar - hemlock - pine forest
K014 Grand fir - Douglas-fir forest
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Immediate Effect of Fire
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More info for the term:
treeFire of any intensity will damage the cambium layer of young trees, usually resulting in death of the tree [
12]. In a mature western white pine stand, a cool fire will kill scattered trees, while only scarring others. However, the fire scars provide a vector for butt rots to enter the tree [
46]. Moderate to severe fire in a mature western white pine stand results in cambium damage and crowning, which usually results in the death of the tree [
56]. The large amount of humus in western white pine forests renders the trees susceptible to death from heating of the roots [
12].
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Importance to Livestock and Wildlife
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Western white pine provides habitat for a variety of mammals, birds, and insects [
3,
11,
64,
66]. Western white pine comprises less than 1 percent of the winter diet of elk [
61]; however, it is browsed by black-tailed deer in the winter when other browse is limited [
3]. The seeds of western white pine are an important part of the diet of red squirrels and deer mice [
11].
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Key Plant Community Associations
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More info for the terms:
forest,
habitat type,
phaseWestern white pine is a seral species that is present in a number of
habitat types, associations, and communities throughout its range. In
northern Idaho and eastern Washington, it may dominate early
successional stages of the western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla)/queencup
beadlily (Clintonia uniflora) and western redcedar (Tsuga
plicata)/queencup beadlily habitat types [
71]. It is also a major seral
species in the western hemlock/queencup beadlily habitat type in western
Montana and is a major constituent of the western hemlock zone in the
Puget Sound area of Washington [
11]. A western white pine riparian
dominance type has been described for northwestern Montana [
14].
Associated species are those associated with the Aralia phase of the
subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa)/queencup beadlily habitat type [
14].
Western white pine is moderately abundant, usually growing in small
groups and often interspersed with other species, in the subalpine
forest zone on the west slope of the Sierra Nevada [
50].
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Life Form
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term:
treeTree
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Management considerations
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
density,
natural,
seed,
selection,
treeWhite pine blister rust: The most serious damaging agent of western
white pine is white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola) [
1,
11,
23].
This rust was introduced into this country at the turn of the century
from infected seedlings that had been imported from nurseries in France
[
1]. White pine blister rust has a life cycle requiring alternate hosts
for its completion: five-needled pines and currants (Ribes spp.). The
rust produces spores on currants that infect white pines. These spores
can be dispersed by wind [
28] up to 10 miles (17 km) [
1]. The spores
germinate on the needles, and use the stomatal openings as a vector to
the bole of the tree. This usually results in the death of the host
tree [
28].
Breeding programs have produced strains that are 65 percent resistant to
intense exposure to white pine blister rust [
2]. Selection of naturally
rust-resistant trees for seed sources for natural regeneration and
planting rust-resistant nursery stock may keep future damage from bister
rust minimal [
11]. In established stands that are not rust resistant,
thinning tends to increase the number of new lethal infections, while
pruning tends to decrease the number of new lethal infections [
18].
Fungi: Western white pine is susceptible to three species of needle
cast fungi: Lophodermella arcuata, Lophodermium nitens, and Bifusella
linearis. It is also susceptible to butt-rot fungi, the most important
being Phellinus pini, Phaeolus schweinitzii, and Heterobasidion annosum
[
11].
The most damaging root disease of western white pine is Armillaria spp.,
which causes fading foliage, growth reduction, dead and rotten roots,
and black rhizomorphs, resulting in weakened or dead trees [
11,
70].
Annosus root disease (Heterobasidion annosum) also causes some mortality
[
11]. It spreads radially, infecting an area up to 0.25 acre (0.1 ha)
away from stumps [
70]. Treating freshly cut stumps with borax has been
proven effective in preventing the spread of annosus root disease [
22].
Insects: Western white pine is susceptible to mountain pine beetle
(Dendroctonus ponderosae) and emarginate ips (Ips emarginatus), and is
the principal host for the ips beetle (Ips montanus) [
11].
Pole blight: Pole blight is a physiological disorder brought on by
drought. This disease caused significant mortality from 1935 to 1960.
Tree mortality was believed to have resulted from rootlet mortality,
which reduced western white pine's ability to absorb moisture [
11]. The
disease is restricted to sites with shallow soils or soils with low
moisture retention [
30].
Other: Western white pine is sensitive to sulfur dioxide and flouride
smelter fumes. These contaminants cause the foliage to yellow and drop
prematurely. Dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium spp.) attacks western white
pine [
11].
Silvicultural practices: The method of choice is clearcutting.
Selection cutting is not practical because it favors more shade-tolerant
species. The composition of a western white pine stand is determined in
the first 30 years. Until that time it is fairly plastic, and the stand
can be modified by thinning to enhance western white pine growth [
11].
Planting: Western white pine seedlings are well suited for planting.
Both bareroot and container-grown stock exhibit excellent survival and
growth [
11]. When planting seedlings on droughty sites, it is
beneficial to mound the seedbed, as this incorporates organic matter,
increases microbial activity, decreases density, and increases the
moisture capacity of the soil. This results in increased nutrient
availability for seedling growth and increases root penetration [
41].
The soil should be packed lightly around the seedling. This practice
increases the growth rate in the first year by up to 30 percent [
31].
Seedlings planted in fall have a significantly reduced height growth
compared with those planted in the spring; however, there is little
difference in their survival rates [
35].
Nitrogen can be limiting on some sites after harvest. The application
of nitrogen at 200 pounds per acre (225 kg/ha) has been found to
increase the growth rate of young western white pine stands (less than
10 years old) by 30 percent [
37].
Frost tolerance: When dormant, western white pine is one of the more
frost-tolerant species of the Northwest [
36].
Competitors: Competing vegetation of western white pine can be
effectively controlled by the application of Roundup herbicide
(isopropylamine salt of glyphosate). The recommended rate of
application is 1 to 3 quarts (1-3 l) of Roundup to 10 gallons (38 l) of
aqueous solution per acre (0.4 ha). This treatment had no observable
effects on western white pine [
33].
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Nutritional Value
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
The foliar nutrient levels for current year's growth of western white
pine were listed as follows [
65].
Percent Parts per million
P K Ca Mg S B Zn Fe Mn
0.20 1.10 0.24 0.10 0.09 30 45 45 240
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Occurrence in North America
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
CA ID MT NV OR WA AB BC
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Other uses and values
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term:
treeNative Americans chewed the resin, wove baskets from the bark, concocted a poultice for dressing wounds from the pitch [
62], and collected the cambium in the spring for food [
68]. Western white pine forests have aesthetic and recreational value. Cones of western white pine are collected for novelty items [
11]. The tree is also planted as an ornamental [
26].
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Palatability
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
The palatability of western white pine's foliage to large ungulates is
generally rated as poor [
3,
61,
64]. Blue grouse prefer western white
pine needles over those of western hemlock [
21].
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Phenology
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. Height and diameter growth starts from May to late June depending on elevation, aspect, and latitude [
11]. Strobili buds emerge in June. The buds are differentiated in July and August of the year preceding emergence. Pollen dispersal lasts for a mean of 8.5 days and usually starts the last week in June. Time of flowering varies over a period of 20 days and is strongly controlled by temperatures during the preceding weeks. It is delayed for 5 days for every 1,000 feet (300 m) gain in elevation, and 6 days per degree Fahrenheit below normal temperatures for May and June. The female strobili ripen from August to September of the second year after bud emergence [
11]. The mean phenological development dates for western white pine in northern Idaho were as follows [
53]: Bark Shoots Buds Pollen Pollen Shoots Winter Cones Cones Slips Open Burst Starts Ends End Buds Full Open Formed Size Apr 28 May 6 May 21 Jun 11 Jun 28 Aug 11 Aug 13 Aug 1 Sep 8
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Plant Response to Fire
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
duff,
seed,
stand-replacing fireAfter a stand-replacing fire, western white pine will seed in from adjacent areas [
17]. After a cool to moderate fire that leaves a mosaic of mineral soil and duff, western white pine will reoccupy the site from seed stored in the seed bank [
29].
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Post-fire Regeneration
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
root crown,
secondary colonizer,
seedTree without adventitious-bud root crown Initial-offsite colonizer (off-site, initial community) Secondary colonizer - on-site seed Secondary colonizer - off-site seed
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Regeneration Processes
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
cone,
duff,
epigeal,
layering,
seed,
stratification,
treeWestern white pine can begin producing strobili at 7 years of age [
11], but production can be limited by moisture stress and timing. Moisture stress in the early summer of the year strobili mature leads to abortion, while moisture stress in the early summer of the first and second years prior to strobili emergence causes an increase in the number of strobili. Moisture stress in the late summer prior to strobili emergence causes a decrease in strobili numbers [
47]. A good crop of female strobili is about 40 per tree [
1]. During fair to poor crop years cone beetles (Conophthorus spp.), cone moths (Dioryctria abietivorella and Eucosma rescissorianna), red squirrels, and deer mice can cause partial or complete crop failures [
11]. Seed production requires 3 years from the onset of bud initiation. Good seed crops occur every 3 to 4 years. The mean number of seeds per pound is 27,000 (59,000/kg). The seed can be dispersed by wind up to 2,620 feet (800 m) from the parent tree. Seeds remain viable in the duff for up to 4 years, but the germination rate decreases. After 2 years the rate is 25 percent, and after 4 years the rate is 1 percent. Western white pine's seed requires cold moist stratification of 30 to 120 days to germinate; germination is epigeal [
11]. Moisture and soil temperature are believed to control the onset of germination. The preferred germination substrate is mineral soil, but seeds will also germinate in duff [
8,
11]. Seedling mortality is quite high in the first year due to snow mold (Neopeckia coulteri), rodents, late season drought, and elevated soil temperatures on dry sites [
11]. On dry sites seedling establishment is favored by partial shade, while on moist sites full sunlight favors establishment [
11,
15]. Vegetative reproduction: Western white pine does not naturally reproduce by sprouting or layering. However, cuttings from young trees treated with rooting hormones (indolebutyric acid) have rooted with fair success [
11]. Williams [
69] describes the process and considerations for rooting cuttings from older trees (25 years). He obtained a mean success rate of 37 percent.
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Regional Distribution in the Western United States
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):
1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
4 Sierra Mountains
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Successional Status
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. Western white pine is classified as shade intolerant to very intolerant [
24]. It is usually seral to fir (Abies spp.), spruce (Picea spp.), or hemlock (Tsuga spp.) [
5,
9]. Stickney [
59] classified western white pine as a colonizer. Western white pine does not respond favorably after release from 30 to 60 years of suppression [
5,
6].
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Synonyms
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Pinus monticola var. minima Lemmon
Pinus strobus L. var. monticola (Dougl. ex D. Don) Nutt.
Strobus monticola Rydb.
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Taxonomy
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
The currently accepted scientific name of western white pine is Pinus
monticola Dougl. ex D. Don (Pinaceae) [
11,
38]. There are two recognized
varieties: P. m. var. minima Lemmon and P. m. var monticola [
38].
There are no subspecies or forms.
Western white pine hybridizes with Balkan pine (P. peuce), blue pine (P.
griffithii), eastern white pine (P. strobus), southwestern white pine
(P. strobiformis), and limber pine (P. flexilis) [
11].
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Wood Products Value
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Western white pine is highly valued as a timber species. Its wood is straight grained, nonresinous, lightweight, and exhibits dimensional stability. These qualities render the wood useful in the production of window and door sashes. The wood is also used in the production of doors, paneling, dimension stock, matches, and toothpicks [
11]. The dimension stock works well. It takes nails without splitting, and it takes a nice finish. The wood is also excellent for carving [
1].
- bibliographic citation
- Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Pinus monticola. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Associated Forest Cover
provided by Silvics of North America
Western white pine is represented in 18 forest cover types of western
North America and Canada. It is the key species in Western White Pine
(Society of American Foresters Type 215) (9). In this type, western white
pine constitutes a plurality of stocking, but many other species such as
grand fir (Abies grandis), subalpine fir (A. lasiocarpa), California
red fir (A. magnifica), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), ponderosa
pine (P. ponderosa), western larch (Larix occidentalis), western
redcedar (Thuja plicata), western hemlock (Tsuga
heterophylla), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), Engelmann
spruce (Picea engelmannii), and mountain hemlock (Tsuga
mertensiana) may also be present. Most often the western white pine
component of Type 215 is even aged with an understory containing
multi-aged trees of the more shade-tolerant species such as western
hemlock and western redcedar. Occasionally, light overstory components of
more intolerant species, such as western larch and lodgepole pine, may
also be present.
In the 17 other cover types, western white pine is a common component,
along with many other species, including Pacific silver fir (Abies
amabilis), white fir (A. concolor), noble fir (A.
procera), Port-Orford-cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana), incense-cedar
(Libocedrus decurrens), Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), whitebark
pine (Pinus albicaulis), foxtail pine (P. balfouriana), limber
pine (P. flexilis), sugar pine (P. lambertiana), Jeffrey
pine (P. jeffreyi), Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia), Pacific
madrone (Arbutus menziesii), bigleaf maple (Acer
macrophyllum), red alder (Alnus rubra), quaking aspen (Populus
tremuloides), and paper birch (Betula papyrifera). These cover
types are as follows:
205 Mountain Hemlock
206 Engelmann Spruce-Subalpine Fir
207 Red Fir
210 Interior Douglas-Fir
212 Western Larch
213 Grand Fir
218 Lodgepole Pine
224 Western Hemlock
226 Coastal True Fir-Hemlock
227 Western Redcedar-Western Hemlock
228 Western Redcedar
229 Pacific Douglas-Fir
230 Douglas-Fir-Western Hemlock
231 Port-Orford-Cedar
237 Interior Ponderosa Pine
247 Jeffrey Pine
256 California Mixed Subalpine
In northern Idaho and eastern Washington, the most important habitat
types in which western white pine grows are Tsuga heterophylla /
Clintonia uniflora, Thuja plicata / Clintonia uniflora, and Abies
grandis / Clintonia uniflora (6). Western white pine is a major seral
species in the Tsuga heterophylla / Clintonia uniflora habitat
type in western Montana and is also present in several others (21).
Western white pine is present in several vegetative associations,
communities, and zones in western Oregon and Washington but is a major
constituent only of the Tsuga heterophylla zone in the Puget Sound
area of Washington (5,11,14).
Most of the habitat types, associations, and communities in Washington,
Oregon, and the Inland Empire where western white pine grows are
strikingly rich in other woody and herbaceous flora (5,6,11,14,21). In
contrast, in the Sierra Nevada the vegetation associated with western
white pine is characteristically sparse. Shrubs associated with western
white pine include huckleberry (Vaccinium spp.), willow (Salix
spp.), honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.), wintergreen (Gaultheria
spp.), azalea (Rhododendron spp.), prickly
currant (Ribes lacustre), sticky currant (R. viscosissimum),
Rocky Mountain maple (Acer glabrum), Greenes mountain-ash (Sorbus
scopulina), princes-pine (Chimaphila umbellata), snowberry
(Symphoricarpos albus), whipplea (Whipplea modesta), ocean-spray
(Holodiscus discolor), serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia),
ninebark (Physocarpus malvaceus), rustyleaf menziesia (Menziesia
ferruginea), spirea (Spiraea betulifolia), pachistima (Pachistima
myrsinites), and twinflower (Linnaea borealis). Graminoids
frequently associated with western white pine include sedge (Carex
spp.), woodrush (Luzula spp.), Columbia brome (Bromus
vulgaris), pine grass (Calamagrostis rubescens), and nodding
trisetum (Trisetum cernuum). Forbs found growing with western
white pine include false solomons-seal (Smilacina spp.), twistedstalk
(Streptopus spp.), coolwort (Tiarella spp.),
violet (Viola spp.), wild ginger (Asarum
caudatum), queenscup (Clintonia uniflora), western goldthread
(Coptis occidentalis), bunchberry (Cornus canadensis),
sweetscented bedstraw (Galium triflorum), white trillium (Trillium
ovatum), and Brewers lupine (Lupinus breweri).
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Climate
provided by Silvics of North America
The portions of Vancouver Island, the Cascade Mountains, and the
Siskiyou Mountains that are within the range of western white pine have
cool maritime climates, with wet winters and dry summers. Precipitation
varies considerably throughout the region depending on elevation and
exposure. Variation with latitude from northern Oregon through British
Columbia is small, however (25). In general, precipitation on Vancouver
Island and in the Cascade Mountains averages from 1500 to 2010 mm (59 to
79 in) per year while precipitation in the Siskiyou Mountains averages
from 510 to 1520 mm (20 to 60 in) per year. The winter snow line varies
with latitude and averages 600 m (2,000 ft) elevation, with dense heavy
snowpacks common. Occasionally, vegetation and the forest floor are coated
with a layer of ice from glaze storms. Temperatures of the Vancouver
Island-Cascade Mountain portions of the western white pine range vary from
a low of -18° C (0° F) to a maximum of 38° C (100° F).
January is usually the coldest month in the region and July and August are
the warmest. Frost-free days range from 200 days in coastal areas to 90
days in the Cascades.
In the Sierra Nevada where western white pine grows, the mean annual
precipitation varies from 760 to 1500 mm (30 to 59 in). Except for
occasional summer thunderstorms, this total falls entirely as snow. The
temperature of the area averages between -9° C (15° F) in
February to 27° C (80° F) in July and August, with maximum
temperature near 37° C (98° F) and a minimum temperature near
-32° C (-26° F). In the Sierra Nevada, frost-free days of the
western white pine range average between 90 and 180 days, but killing
frosts can occur at any time.
The climate of the Inland Empire in the western white pine range is
influenced by the Pacific Ocean some 400 km (248 mi) to the west. The
summers are dry, the majority of the precipitation occurring during the
fall and winter. Precipitation averages between 710 and 1520 mm (28 and 60
in), distributed seasonally as follows: 35 percent, winter; 24 percent,
spring; 14 percent, summer; and 27 percent, fall (28). Snowfall averages
262 cm (103 in) but ranges from 122 cm (48 in) to 620 cm (244 in). Annual
temperatures in the inland range of western white pine average from 4°
to 10° C (40° to 50° F) with extremes of -40° and 42°
C (-40° and 107° F). The growing season for western white pine
in the Inland Empire is irregular depending on location and year but
averages between 60 and 160 days (28).
The boundaries of the western white pine range in the Inland Empire are
limited at the lower elevations by deficient moisture and at the upper
elevations by cold temperatures. The southern boundary of the type in the
Inland Empire is not fixed by insufficient precipitation alone, but by a
balance of precipitation and evaporation (28).
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Damaging Agents
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At one time or another, fire has left its mark
on practically every part of the western white pine forest (28). Western
white pine depends on fire or timber harvesting to remove competing
conifers and allow it to become established as an early seral species. Its
relatively thin bark and moderately flammable foliage make it intermediate
in fire resistance among its conifer associates (20). As a result of fire
protection and the lack of major fires, plus blister rust infection, the
proportion of western white pine regeneration (planted and natural) in
northern Idaho, eastern Washington, and western Montana decreased from 44
percent in 1941 to 5 percent in 1979.
Western white pine when dormant is tolerant of cold and along with
lodgepole pine is one of the more frost-tolerant northwestern species.
Needle desiccation can occur when cold, drying winds cause excessive loss
of moisture that cannot be replaced fast enough because of cold or frozen
soil or tree trunks. Also, western white pine is more tolerant of heat
than most of its more shade-tolerant associates.
The species is sensitive to both sulfur dioxide and fluoride smelter
fumes, which cause the foliage to yellow and drop prematurely (15,20).
Depending on the site, western white pine is relatively windfirm, but
considerable damage can occur from windthrow. Snow often causes breakage
in young pole stands.
Western white pine is beset by many serious diseases (15). By far the
most prominent disease of western white pine is blister rust. In northern
Idaho and contiguous parts of Montana and Washington, a combination of
climate, abundant alternate host plants (species of Ribes), and
susceptible pines contribute to heavy losses. But, through selection of
naturally rust resistant trees for seed sources for natural regeneration
and planting of rust resistant nursery stock, damage to western white pine
stands from blister rust in the future should be minimal. Other stem
diseases, such as dwarf mistletoe, Arceuthobium laricis, and A.
tsugense, occur on western white pine; however, they are of little
consequence.
In prolonged periods of drought, pole blight, a physiological disorder,
can occur in stands of the 40- to 100-year class, causing yellow foliage
and dead resinous areas on the trunk. Later the top dies and, in a few
years, the tree. The disease does not appear to be caused by a primary
pathogen but results from rootlet deterioration in certain soils
restricting the uptake of water. The disease, a consequence of a drought
from 1916 to 1940 (19), caused serious mortality to western white pine
from 1935 to 1960. At present, the disease is not a major cause of
mortality in western white pine stands. In conjunction with pole blight
studies, root lesions caused by Leptographium spp. were isolated;
these could have a role in the decline caused by pole blight.
A needle blight, caused by Lecanosticta spp., often leads to
shedding of foliage more than I year old. Another foliage disease that
attacks mainly the upper and middle crown is needle cast caused by Lophodermella
arcuata. Two other needle cast fungi, Bifusella linearis and
Lophodermium nitens, attack isolated trees.
The foremost root disease of western white pine is Armillaria spp.,
causing fading foliage, growth reduction, root-collar exudation of
resin, dead and rotten roots, and black rhizomorphs. Heterobasidion
annosum and Phellinus weiri also cause some mortality of
individuals and groups. The most important butt-rot fungi are Phellinus
pini, Heterobasidion annosum, and Phaeolus schweinitzii. Many
other fungi are capable of causing decay in injured or overmature trees,
and rot often becomes excessive in trees over 120 years of age.
The bark beetles are the most important group of insects that attack
western white pine. The mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae)
kills groups of trees, primarily in mature forests. Trees weakened by
blister rust are often attacked by the mountain pine beetle. Likewise,
weakened trees are sometimes attacked by the red turpentine beetle (Dendroctonus
valens). Usually, this beetle is not aggressive and does not become
epidemic, but through repeated attacks it can kill trees. More often, it
just weakens them, leading to fatal attack by other bark beetles (12).
Attack of western white pine by mountain pine beetle sometimes results
in attack on the bole by emarginate ips (Ips emarginatus). Likewise,
the ips beetle (Ips montanus) attacks weakened western white pine,
its principal host, in association with other bark beetles. The Pityogenes
fossifrons beetle breeds principally in western white pine, but its
attacks are seldom primary. The beetle is capable, however, of attacking
western white pine reproduction. Many other bark beetles and insects
attack western white pine, but, for the most part, they do not cause
extensive damage.
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Flowering and Fruiting
provided by Silvics of North America
Western white pine is monoecious. Three
complete growing seasons are required for seed to mature. Strobilus buds
are differentiated during July and August of the growing season before
their appearance in June the following spring (28). In northern Idaho, the
oval staminate strobili are about 10 cm (4 in) long, borne in clusters of
15 to 25 on branches of the middle crown, and are distinguishable about
June 1 (28); whereas, in the Sierra Nevada of California, the staminate
strobili appear near the first of July. Pollen dissemination in the Inland
Empire usually begins during the last week of June and can continue to the
middle of July but usually averages 8.5 days.
The greenish-yellow to bright pink ovulate strobili are borne on stalks
at tips of the upper branches, and in the Inland Empire become visible
about mid-June of the growing season following initiation of the
primordia. The erect conelets are from 1.5 cm to 4.0 cm (0.6 to 1.6 in)
long at time of pollen dissemination , and they grow to 2.5 cm to 5.0 cm
(1.0 to 2.0 in) long by the end of the first growing season (28).
Time of anthesis may vary over a period of 20 days and is rigidly
controlled by temperatures during the weeks immediately preceding
anthesis. Anthesis is delayed about 5 days per 300 m (980 ft) increase in
elevation, and about 6 days per degree Fahrenheit below normal
temperatures for May and June (28). In the Inland Empire, good strobilus
crops in western white pine occur every 3 to 4 years, the major cycle
being 4 years. Warm, dry "stress" periods, during the early
summer of the 2 years before strobilus emergence, favor strobilus
production. In contrast, stresses in the late summer of the year prior to
emergence or during the period of emergence depress strobilus production.
Within individual trees and within localities, maxima pollen shedding and
ovulate anthesis practically coincide. No phenological barriers to either
selfing or crossing appear to exist, but most western white pine show a
moderate to strong discrimination against self-pollination. Western white
pine seedlings that result from self-pollination are typically slower
growing than seedlings resulting from cross-pollination (3).
Western white pine is predominantly female from first strobilus
production at age 7 through age 20 (3). Cultural treatments, such as
watering, fertilizing, and cultivating, usually have little effect on this
characteristic, but thinning and fertilizing 40-year-old western white
pine with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium has increased it (1).
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Genetics
provided by Silvics of North America
Population Differences
Western white pine is different in genetic variation from most other
conifers that have been intensively studied (26). Within northern Idaho,
western white pine genetic variation is high, and most of this variation
is among trees within a stand. Differences among stands and elevational
zones occur, but the proportion of the variance attributable to these
sources is usually smaller than that for trees within stands. Evidence
indicates little geographic or ecologic differentiation of populations for
western white pine. The adaptation of western white pine to different
geographic, climatic, topographic, and edaphic conditions is governed more
by phenotypic plasticity than by selective differentiation (22). Also, it
appears that there is little difference among populations from coastal
Washington and western British Columbia and northern Idaho populations
(27). There appear to be genetic differences, however, between California
populations and Idaho populations (23). Because of the small genetic
variation detected in populations of western white pine in northern Idaho,
seeds can be transferred without regard to elevation, latitude, longitude,
or habitat type.
Races
Several single recessive genes are recognized in western white pine (3).
Albino genes, chlorophyll deficient genes, a curly foliage gene, and a
dwarfing gene have been found. Monoterpenes also appear to be under strong
genetic control. Height growth gains of 4 to 12 percent are possible
according to estimates from progeny testing and selections.
Work on inheritance of blister rust resistance in western white pine
began in 1950. This early work indicated considerable heritability of
blister rust resistance. Most foliar resistance is governed by genes
reducing the frequency of secondary needle infections and causing slow
fungus growth in secondary needles (3). In the stem, genetic resistance is
governed primarily by genes controlling a fungicidal reaction and causing
slow growth of the fungus. Other resistance mechanisms include lowered
frequency of needle lesions, premature shedding of needles, and fungicidal
reaction in the short shoot. Nursery and field tests of rust resistant
seedlings after two cycles of selections indicate rust resistance of 66
and 88 percent, respectively.
Hybrids
Western white pine can be easily crossed with other five-needle white
pines (3). It hybridizes successfully with Balkan pine (Pinus peuce),
blue pine (P. griffithii), eastern white pine (P.
strobus), Japanese white pine (P. parviflora), southwestern
white pine (P. strobiformis), and limber pine (P. flexilis).
Hybridization with Swiss stone pine (P. cembra), Korean pine
(P. koraiensis), and whitebark pine (P. albicaulis) has
not been as successful.
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Growth and Yield
provided by Silvics of North America
Western white pine trees most often have clean
boles with minimum taper and narrow crowns. In the absence of western
white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola), the species is long
lived; trees are commonly 300 to 400 years old and rarely, up to 500 years
old. Overmature trees are often more than 180 cm (71 in) in d.b.h. and 60
m (197 ft) tall.
Tables 1 and 2 show the sizes, net volume, basal areas, and growth rates
for western white pine in fully stocked stands in the Inland Empire.
Although blister rust modifies stand development, in the absence of the
rust, stands develop as shown.
Table 1- Average size and volume of dominant and
codominant western white pine growing in fully stocked stands in the
Inland Empire
Site index at base age
50 years
Item
12.2 m or 40 ft
18.3 m or 60 ft
24.4 m or 80 ft
Dominants and codominants
D.b.h., cm
29.5
41.9
56.9
Height, m
26.8
40.2
53.3
Volume, m³
0.8
2.2
4.9
Cubic volume,¹ m³/ha
699
976
1,267
Basal area, m²/ha
70
72
74
Dominants and codominants
D.b.h., in
11.6
16.5
22.4
Height, ft
88.0
132.0
175.0
Volume, ft³
27.5
77.0
171.6
Cubic volume, ft³/acre
9,980
13,950
18,100
Basal area,¹ ft²/acre
306
314
322
¹In trees 0.2 cm
(0.6 in) and larger in d.b.h.
Table 2- Mean annual increment of fully stocked stands
of western white pine in the Inland Empire
Site index at base age
50 years
Age
12.2 m or 40 ft
18.3 m or 60 ft
24.4 m or 80 ft
yr
m³/ha
20
0.84
1.40
1.89
40
3.29
4.62
5.95
60
4.90
6.86
8.89
80
5.67
7.84
10.29
100
5.88
8.26
10.78
120
5.81
8.12
10.57
140
5.53
7.70
9.94
yr
fbm/acre¹
20
12
20
27
40
47
66
85
60
70
98
127
80
81
112
147
100
84
118
154
120
83
116
151
140
79
110
142
¹In trees 0.2 cm
(0.6 in) and larger in d.b.h.
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Reaction to Competition
provided by Silvics of North America
Western white pine is almost always a
seral species. It is classed as intermediate in shade tolerance when
compared to other northwestern tree species. The species attains a
dominant position in the stand only following wildfires, even-aged
silvicultural systems, or through cultural stand treatments favoring the
species.
Western white pine can be regenerated using even-aged silvicultural
systems. On favorable sites, clearcut, seed-tree, and shelterwood systems
result in adequate and diverse natural regeneration within 5 to 10 years
after the regeneration cut. If a natural blister rust-resistant seed
source is not present on the site, planting can be used to regenerate the
stands.
Western white pine seedlings are well suited for planting. Both
bare-root and container-grown western white pine seedlings have excellent
survival and growth when properly planted on appropriate sites. Bare-root
stock has better survival with spring planting, but containerized stock
appears to have excellent survival when planted during either season.
When natural regeneration and the clearcut system are used for
establishing conifer mixtures that include western white pine, it is not
uncommon to regenerate 11,000 trees per hectare (4,451/acre), of which
1,000/ha (405/acre) are western white pine (4). Similarly, seed-tree cuts
can produce 12,000 trees per hectare (4,856/acre) of which 1,500/ha
(607/acre) are western white pine. Shelterwood systems produce more trees,
but the proportion that are western white pine is less than for other
systems. On southerly aspects, regardless of the cutting system, less
regeneration occurs.
The individual tree selection system cannot be used to manage western
white pine successfully because it tends to favor the more shade-tolerant
species, such as western redcedar and western hemlock, but group selection
may have limited application.
Where reproduction has become established under partial cuttings, the
density of overstory and time until removal greatly affect development.
Western white pine growth can be inhibited even by the shade of a light
shelterwood. Sixteen-year-old western white pine growing under an overwood
density of 6 m²/ha (27 ft²/acre) were 2.0 m (6.6 ft) tall
compared to trees 0.5 m (1.6 ft) tall growing under an overwood density of
21 m²/ha (91 ft²/acre) (28).
The composition of a western white pine stand is determined during the
first 30 years of the stand's life (13). Lodgepole pine and western larch
can grow one and one-half times as fast in height as western white pine
during this period. Western larch can usually maintain its superiority in
height growth through maturity, but lodgepole pine's growth superiority
seldom lasts past age 50. Similarly, grand fir can equal western white
pine height growth for the first 30 years and Douglas-fir is about equal
in height growth. On northerly aspects and in shaded conditions, western
hemlock height growth can equal that of western white pine (8).
Dominant western white pine over age 30 responds to release, but not
aggressively. In the Inland Empire, in 55- to 65-year-old stands, half of
the basal area must be removed to gain lasting improvement (10). The
effectiveness of light to moderate thinnings in 55- to 65-year-old stands
of western white pine is short-lived. Therefore, during the first 30
years, species composition is relatively plastic and can be modified
materially by changing the density of residual overwood and by weeding or
thinning. Beyond age 30, treatments are less effective and must be drastic
to be long lasting.
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Rooting Habit
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The extent of western white pine's root system
and the density of its rootlets depend on external conditions (18).
Approximately 65 percent of the total root system, exclusive of the
central vertical system, occurs in the uppermost 30 cm (12 in) of soil.
Mature western white pine systems can spread 8 m (26 ft) laterally from
the root collar with verticals descending off the lateral system, as well
as in a concentration beneath the root collar. The root systems are
tolerant of dense soils and have moderate growth rates. Western white pine
trees have approximately 75 percent of their absorbing surface in the
upper 60 cm (24 in) of the soil (28). Fine root development of western
white pine is favored where vegetative competition is low and available
moisture is high.
The fungi that have been reported to form mycorrhizae with western white
pine are Suillus granulatus, S. subaureus, S. subluteus, Boletellus
zelleri, Cenococcum graniforme, Gomphidius ochraceus, G. rutilus, Russula
delica, R. xerampelina, and Tricholoma flavovirens.
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Seed Production and Dissemination
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Cones of western white pine
become ripe during August and September of the second year after the
strobilus buds are initiated. Color of ripe cones ranges from yellowish or
beige-brown through reddish brown and dark brown (17). Western white pine
cones are about 20 cm to 25 cm (7.9 to 9.8 in) long; cones as short as 5
cm (2.0 in) and as long as 36 cm (14.2 in) have been reported. Over 18
years, 380 western white pine from 25 to 70 years old in the Inland Empire
produced from 2 seeds to more than 300 seeds per cone, with a mean
production of 226 (2).
Western white pines can begin cone production as early as age 7 and
become more prolific with age. Not until trees are about age 70 does cone
production become both frequent and abundant. It continues to increase
with age until trees are about 50 cm (19.7 in) in diameter. After that,
seed production depends on individual tree vigor and character of crown or
possibly on heritable capacity to set and bear cones (298).
Seed yields for western white pine range from 30,900 to 70,500/kg
(14,000 to 32,000/lb) with an average of 59,000/kg (27,000/lb) (17). In
the Inland Empire, seed production varies from 41,000 to 457,000/ha
(16,600 to 185,000/acre), with average annual seed yields for a
75-year-old stand and an over-mature stand of 8,600/ha (3,500/acre) and
99,000/ha (40,100/acre), respectively.
Several cone and seed insects and rodents can cause partial to almost
complete failures of cone crops in otherwise poor to fair crop years. The
cone beetles, Conophthorus monticolae and C. lambertianae,
and cone moths, Dioryctria abietivorella and Eucosma
rescissoriana, cause serious seed losses some years (12). Western
white pine seeds are also a favorite food of red squirrels and the deer
mouse.
In the Inland Empire, seed dissemination of western white pine begins in
early fall; 15 percent of the current crop reaches the ground before
September 1, about 85 percent by the end of October, and 15 percent during
the late fall and winter (28). Seeds are usually disseminated by wind, but
squirrels, mice, and various birds contribute to seed dissemination. Most
seeds fall within 120 m (390 ft) of the parent tree, but they have been
known to travel over 800 m (2,620 ft) from it (28).
Western white pine seeds remain viable after overwinter storage in duff
on the forest floor. Seeds have shown 40 percent viability after one
winter's storage, and 25 percent viability after two winters' storage; and
less than 1 percent after 3 and 4 years' storage. Western white pine seeds
properly stored under artificial conditions of seed moisture content of 5
to 10 percent and temperatures of -18° C (0° F) to -15° C
(5° F) remain viable for 20 years (17).
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Seedling Development
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Western white pine seed requires 30 to 120
days of cold, moist conditions before germination commences (17). Seed
dormancy appears to be controlled by the seed coat, papery seed membrane,
and physiological elements of the embryo, gametophyte, or both (16). There
is a strong genetic component to seed germination with high family
heritability. Both fresh seed and stored seed require cold stratification
temperatures of 1° C (33° F) to 5° C (41° F) to break
dormancy. Germination is epigeal. The seeds of western white pine usually
germinate in the spring in soil that was wet to field capacity by melting
snow. In the Inland Empire, seed germination at lower elevations begins in
late April. At higher elevations and on protected sites, germination may
be delayed until early June. Germination can continue on exposed sites
until July 1 and on protected sites until August 15. Under full sun,
germination begins much earlier and ends much earlier than in partial or
fully shaded conditions. Soil temperatures probably control the beginning
of germination, and drying out of the topsoil or duff probably stops
germination (28). Light appears to have little importance in natural
germination of western white pine seed. Mineral surfaces are better
germination media than duff even though duff may contain many stored
seeds.
During the first growing season, a high percentage of seedlings die,
principally because of diseases, but insects, rodents, and birds cause
serious seedling losses. Fusarium, cause of a damping-off disease,
and Neopeckia coulteri, a snow mold, can cause extensive seedling
mortality during the first year (15). Seedlings up to 5 years old are
often killed by Rhizina undulata, a root rot, in patches 0.5 m
(1.6 ft) to 1.5 m (5 ft) in diameter. Seedling mortality late in the first
growing season is due primarily to temperature and drought. High surface
temperature is the most important cause of mortality on exposed sites, and
drought is a factor on heavily shaded areas where root penetration is slow
and unable to keep pace with receding soil moisture. For the most part,
western white pine seedlings have low drought tolerance (20).
All factors considered, western white pine seedling establishment is
favored by partial shade on severe to moderately severe sites. On the more
sheltered sites, such as north slopes, little or no shade is best for
seedling establishment (28). Once established, western white pine grows
best in full sunlight on all sites.
Early root and shoot growth of western white pine seedlings usually is
not rapid. The first summer, the primary root grows about 15 cm (6 in) to
30 cm (12 in) in open situations, between 13 cm (5 in) and 23 cm (9 in)
under partial shade, and only 5 cm (2 in) to 8 cm (3 in) under full shade.
Seedlings planted in soils rich in nutrients, high in organic matter, and
with low bulk densities can have first-year root elongation up to 50 cm
(20 in). Seedlings usually average between 3 cm (1 in) and 5 cm (2 in) in
height by the end of the first growing season. In the Inland Empire,
open-grown western white pine seedlings require about 8 years to reach a
height of 1.4 m (4.5 ft) (28). Similarly, 20-year-old western white pine
grow about 81 cm (32 in) to 99 cm (39 in) per year on good sites and about
23 cm (9 in) to 46 cm (18 in) on poor sites.
Both height growth and diameter growth of western white pine in the
Inland Empire usually begin about the first week of May but may begin as
early as April 5 and as late as June 25 depending on elevation, latitude,
and aspect (24). Also, in the Inland Empire, leaf buds usually open near
May 21 but may open as early as March 27 and as late as June 21. Here,
shoot growth usually ends by August 11; reported dates for shoot growth
cessation are as early as June 9 and as late as October 21. Winter buds
can be formed as early as June 14 and as late as September 30 but are
usually formed by August 13. In the Inland Empire, diameter growth
normally ceases by the end of August. Old needles usually turn straw
yellow between the middle of August and the first week of September and
drop soon thereafter. Total needle fall of western white pine is moderate
when compared to associated species (20), with needle retention of 3 to 4
years.
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Soils and Topography
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A wide variety of soils support western white pine along the west coast
of Washington and Oregon (11). The species reaches its best development on
deep, porous soils but is most common on poor, sandy soils. The soils are
derived from a wide variety of parent material but are generally
moderately deep with medium acidity. Organic matter content is usually
moderate, and textures range from sandy loam to clay loam. The majority of
the soils in which western white pine grows have been classified as
Spodosols. In the Puget Sound area, extensive stands of western white pine
grow on soils originating from glacial drift.
Soils of the Inland Empire western white pine region are very diverse.
Soil depths range from 25 cm (10 in) to over 230 cm (90 in) and have
developed from decomposed granite, schist, quartzite, argillite,
sandstone, and shale. Most often, the more rocky soils have developed from
basalt, glacial deposits, alluvial deposits, or lacustrine deposits (28).
In the Inland Empire, the upper soil layers that support western white
pine are composed of loess or loessial-like material. As along the west
coast, most of the soils that support western white pine in the Inland
Empire are Spodosols.
The pH of soils supporting western white pine in the Inland Empire
ranges from 4.5 to 6.8 with a mean near 5.4 (6). The cation exchange
capacity of these soils ranges from 20.5 to 28.5 meq/100 g with a mean of
25.1 meq/100 g. Mean concentrations of potassium, calcium, and magnesium
are 0.5, 10.5, and 0.8 meq/100 g, respectively. Nitrogen content of soils
of the Inland Empire western white pine range varies from 0.14 percent to
0.48 percent with a mean of 0.25 percent.
Western white pine grows at a wide range of elevations. In interior
British Columbia, it grows at elevations up to 450 m (1,480 ft), while on
Vancouver Island it is normally found at elevations up to 1200 m (3,940
ft) and has been found at elevations over 1500 m (4,920 ft). In western
Washington, western white pine is found growing at sea level (near Puget
Sound) and up to 910 m (2,980 ft) in elevation in the Cascades. Farther
south in the western Cascades, it grows between elevations of 600 and 1850
m (1,970 and 6,070 ft). On the eastern side of the Cascades, it is found
growing between elevations of 350 and 1450 m (1,150 and 4,760 ft). In the
Olympic Mountains, the species ranges from sea level to an elevation of
550 m (1,800 ft). In the Siskiyou Mountains, western white pine is found
at elevations from 1830 to 2140 m (6,000 to 7,020 ft). Farther south in
the Sierra Nevada, it usually grows at elevations from 1830 to 2300 m
(6,000 to 7,550 ft) with occasional trees at elevations of 3350 m (10,990
ft).
In northern Idaho and contiguous parts of Washington, Montana, and
British Columbia, western white pine usually grows between 500 m (1,640
ft) and 1800 m (5,910 ft). Here the topography is usually steep and broken
with V-shaped and round-bottomed valleys. Western white pine can grow on a
variety of slopes and aspects but is most common along moist creek
bottoms, lower benches, and northerly slopes. The most extensive bodies of
western white pine are found in the wide river bottoms, less steep lower
slopes, and in the more gently rolling country of the Priest, Coeur
d'Alene, St. Joe, and Clearwater River basins (28).
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Special Uses
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Because western white pine wood is nonresinous, it is highly desired for
the manufacture of moldings and trim. Also, western white pine is used for
pattern stock, in cabinet shops, and for home handicraft because of its
softness and workability. The clear grades of lumber are used for patterns
in the foundry industry, mainly because of the high degree of dimensional
stability. Decorative plywood is manufactured by slicing, and a limited
amount of rotary-cut veneer is manufactured for industrial use.
Western white pine grows in some of the finest western outdoor
recreation areas and has considerable esthetic value. In addition, the
long, distinctive cones are collected in considerable numbers for
novelties or souvenirs.
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Vegetative Reproduction
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Western white pine does not naturally
reproduce by sprouting or layering. Cuttings from trees more than 4 to 5
years old are difficult to root (3), although cuttings from 3-year-old
seedlings have been rooted with fair success using rooting hormones.
Needle bundles from 2-year-old seedlings have produced roots and some have
produced shoots successfully.
Western white pine is relatively easy to propagate by grafting at all
ages (3). Several types of grafts have been used; early spring grafting
before flushing has been most successful. Also, scions, taken from a
variety of places in the tree crown, graft with equal success. Grafting
conducted under greenhouse conditions is more successful than field
grafting. Interspecies grafting on other five-needle rootstocks, such as
eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), sugar pine (P.
lambertiana), and blue pine (P. griffithii), has been
generally successful. Grafting of western white pine on species other than
the five-needle white pines has not been accomplished.
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Distribution
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Western white pine grows along the west coast from latitude 35° 51'
N. in southern Tulare County, CA, to latitude 51° 30' N. near Butte
Inlet in southern British Columbia. Along the west coast, the species
grows on Vancouver Island, in adjacent British Columbia, southward through
Washington and Oregon, and in the Cascade Mountains (7). It is also found
in the Siskiyou Mountains of southern Oregon and northern California, in
the Sierra Nevada of California, and near Lake Tahoe, NV.
In the interior, western white pine grows from latitude 52° 30' N.
near Quesnel Lake, BC, southward through the Selkirk Mountains of eastern
Washington and northern Idaho, and into the Bitterroot Mountains in
western Montana. Its southernmost interior limit is in the Blue Mountains
of northeastern Oregon (latitude 44° 14' N.). Isolated populations
are found as far east as Glacier National Park, MT. It attains its
greatest size and reaches its best stand and commercial development in the
Inland Empire, which includes northern Idaho and adjacent sections of
Montana, Washington, and British Columbia (28).
- The native range of western white pine.
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Brief Summary
provided by Silvics of North America
Pinaceae -- Pine family
Russell T. Graham
Western white pine (Pinus monticola), also called mountain white
pine, Idaho white pine, or silver pine, is an important timber tree. Its
lightweight, nonresinous, straight-grained wood exhibits dimensional
stability that makes it particularly valuable for sash, frames, and doors,
interior paneling, building construction, match wood, and toothpicks.
Western white pine grows rapidly to a large size; one of the largest
standing trees measures 200 cm (78.6 in) in d.b.h. and 72.8 m (239 ft)
tall in the mountains near Medford, OR.
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Physical Description
provided by USDA PLANTS text
Tree, Evergreen, Monoecious, Habit erect, Trees without or rarely having knees, Tree with bark rough or scaly, Young shoots 3-dimensional, Buds not resinous, Leaves needle-like, Leaves alternate, Needle-like leaf margins finely serrulate (use magnification or slide your finger along the leaf), Leaf apex acute, Leaves < 5 cm long, Leaves > 5 cm long, Leaves < 10 cm long, Leaves blue-green, Needle-like leaves triangular, Needle-like leaves twisted, Needle-like leaf habit erect, Needle-like leaves per fascicle mostly 5, Needle-like leaf sheath early deciduous, Twigs pubescent, Twigs viscid, Twigs not viscid, Twigs without peg-like projections or large fascicles after needles fall, Berry-like cones orange, Woody seed cones > 5 cm long, Seed cones bearing a scarlike umbo, Umbo with missing or very weak prickle, Umbo with obvious prickle, Bracts of seed cone included, Seeds red, Seeds brown, Seeds winged, Seeds unequally winged, Seed wings prominent, Seed wings equal to or broader than body.
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Western white pine
provided by wikipedia EN
Western white pine (Pinus monticola), also called silver pine[2] and California mountain pine,[2] is a species of pine in the family Pinaceae. It occurs in mountain ranges of northwestern North America and is the state tree of Idaho.
Description
Western white pine is a large tree, regularly growing to 30–50 metres (98–164 ft) tall. It is a member of the white pine group, Pinus subgenus Strobus, and like all members of that group, the leaves ('needles') are in fascicles (bundles) of five,[3] with a deciduous sheath. The needles are finely serrated,[3] and 5–13 cm (2–5 in) long. The cones, appearing even on young trees, are long and slender,[3] 12–32 cm (4+3⁄4–12+1⁄2 in) long and 3–4 cm (1+1⁄4–1+1⁄2 in) broad (closed), opening to 5–8 cm (2–3+1⁄4 in) broad; the scales are thin and flexible. The seeds are small, 4–7 mm (3⁄16–1⁄4 in) long, and have a long slender wing 15–22 mm (9⁄16–7⁄8 in) long.
The branches are borne in regular whorls,[3] produced at the rate of one a year; this is pronounced in narrow, stand-grown trees, while open specimens may have a more rounded form with wide-reaching limbs. When mature, the tree has bark that appears to be cut into small, checkered units.[3]
Similar species
It is related to the Eastern white pine (Pinus strobus),[3] differing from it in having larger cones, slightly longer-lasting leaves (2–3 years, rather than 1.5–2 years) with more prominent stomatal bands, and a somewhat denser and narrower habit.
Distribution
The species occurs in humid areas of the mountains of the Western United States and Western Canada[3] such as the Sierra Nevada, the Cascade Range, the Coast Range, and the northern Rocky Mountains. It can be found in elevations of 600 to 1,800 meters (2,000 to 5,900 ft) above sea level in eastern Washington and Oregon's Blue Mountains[3] and 1,800 to 3,100 metres (5,900 to 10,200 ft) on the western face of the Sierra Nevada as far south as the headwaters of the Kern River.[4][3] The tree often occurs in forests with fir and hemlock species, especially those which are tolerant of shade.[3] It benefits from disturbances that clear away competing species, including low fires that do not destroy all of its cone-protected seeds.[3] It is also well adapted to poor, rocky soils.[3]
Ecology
Once abundant in northern Idaho, Western white pine's population was drastically affected from the late 19th century to the late 20th century by logging, wildfires, white pine blister rust, and a bark beetle epidemic.[3] Since 1970, millions of Western white pine seedlings have been planted to make up for the losses.[3]
The white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola) is a fungus that was accidentally introduced from Europe in 1909. The United States Forest Service estimates that 90% of the Western white pines have been killed by the blister rust west of the Cascades. Large stands have been succeeded by other pines or non-pine species. The rust has also killed much of the whitebark pine outside of California. Blister rust is less severe in California, and Western white and whitebark pines have survived there in great numbers.
Resistance to the blister rust is genetic; due to Western white pine's genetic variability, some individuals are relatively unaffected. The Forest Service has a program for locating and breeding rust-resistant Western white pine and sugar pine. Seedlings of these trees have been introduced into the wild.
Uses
The gum was reportedly chewed by Native Americans to treat coughs. The pitch was used to fasten arrowheads and coat fishing and whaling instruments.[3] European colonists used both Western and Eastern white pine as softwood lumber.[3] Both species are considered excellent for molding and carving.[3] First the Eastern and then the Western species were used in the building of transcontinental railroads in the late 19th century.[3] In the early 20th century, white pine was used to build houses and make matches.[3]
Western white pine is widely grown as an ornamental tree.
References
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Western white pine: Brief Summary
provided by wikipedia EN
Western white pine (Pinus monticola), also called silver pine and California mountain pine, is a species of pine in the family Pinaceae. It occurs in mountain ranges of northwestern North America and is the state tree of Idaho.
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