Global warming is having a negative affect on numerous estuaries and wetlands located around the world. Global warming is causing the sea level to rise, which is causing a number of wetlands to be immersed in salt water causing a rapid decline in the number of estuaries. Not only are the wetlands being immersed in water causing the plant life to die but also it is carrying the salt water further and further inland raising the salinity content of the neighboring waters. Furthermore, increased drought frequencies caused by global warming will also cause the salinity content to rise. This is advantageous to Urosalpinx cinerea and other predatory gastropods who enjoy water with a high salinity content. As global warming increases, their populations are expected to increase while the number of oysters, clams, and other bivalves is expected to decrease in the near future. ( EPA, 2001)
Urosalpinx cinerea is a natural predator for Eastern Oysters as well as other mollusks. It especially prefers soft-shelled young oysters and tends to eat numerous small meals instead of one larger one. Therefore, the species can become a real pest in commercial oyster areas killing off large numbers of young oysters reducing the amount of harvestable oysters in the succeeding years. This carnivore kills on average 60% or more of the seed crop annually. (Nichols & Cooke, 1979 ; Buchsbaum & Pearse, 1987 ; Gosner, 1979)
Food usually consists of oysters and other mollusks. This makes Urosalpinx cinerea a carnivore. It prefers to prey upon smaller softer shelled oysters, which are much easier to penetrate and eat. They are usually stationary or somewhat mobile filter feeders that remain in set stationary breeding or living beds located on the floor of the shoreline. Urosalpinx cinerea crawls over the beds finding small oysters. It then grips the shell with its foot, which secretes a softening agent and uses its drill, called a radula, in a mechanical process to break through the prey's shell. Once this occurs Urosalpinx cinerea inserts its proboscis into the oyster, which then secretes a muscle relaxer into the prey causing the oyster to open exposing the animal inside. (Morton, 1958 ; Buchsbaum & Pearse, 1987 ; Nichols & Cooke, 1979)
After drilled, a total of one fourth of the oyster's tissue remains inside. This tissue consists of the adductor muscle, various soft parts, and the gills. The muscle destruction of the oysters caused by the drill was found to range from none to total destruction. However, it was found that in 90% of the oysters studied, at least half of the adductor muscle was destroyed. The oyster drills exhibited a clear preference when eating consisting of various soft tissues, the gills, and the adductor muscle allowing the oyster drills to eat as long as possible on one oyster before it gapes allowing other predators to feed upon it. Urosalpinx cinerea drills the oysters through the central portion of the valve and not at the margin of the valves. (Chapman, 1955)
Urosalpinx cinerea is found along the Eastern shore of the United States from the coast of Florida to Massachusetts Bay. Urosalpinx cinerea can also be found along the coast of Great Britain. (Pratt, 1916 ; Nichols & Cooke, 1979 ; JNCC, 1998)
Biogeographic Regions: atlantic ocean (Native )
Urosalpinx cinerea usually dwell on rocks or in the sand along the coast and in bays. (Nichols & Cooke, 1979) Urosalpinx cinerea is found anywhere oysters flourish. They are most abundent in intertidal zones and shallow water areas including estuaries, marshes, and bays. Urosalpinx cinerea especially enjoys these waters when there is a relatively high salinity content. Usually, the greater the salinity content the more this species will thrive at a specific location. (Beal, 1993 ; NOAA, 2000)
Aquatic Biomes: coastal
Urosalpinx cinerea is about 25mm long and 15mm wide. Its flesh is of a gray or yellowish color with brown spiral stripes. Its shell resembles that of the common Ocenebra but is smaller, darker, and less ridged. Its shell is fusiform and has a rough texture created by an average of 12 ridges running longitudinal along the shell. The shell is also characterized by 5 to 6 raised whorls. The lip of the shell typically has between 2 and 6 teeth and is scalloped along with a short aperture with a canal. The species seems to be monomorphic and there is no difference in appearance depending upon the season. There also seems to be no reported or observed polymorphisms. Young members of the species seem to only differ from adults in relative size including length and mass. (Pratt, 1916 ; Nichols & Cooke, 1979)
Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; bilateral symmetry
The breeding season begins once the water temperature drops down into the 20s C and remains there for a week. The eggs are fertilized and deposited between rocks or on the floor of the ocean. The eggs are usually 240 microns in diameter. When the eggs are deposited with an albuminus substance that provides nourishment for the development of embryos. The cleavage of the egg is unequal and spiral with large polar lobes. The hatching embryo produces an enzyme that dissolves the protective sack. The average time it takes for an embryo to develop from fertilization to hatching is 40 days. The embryonic development itself is related to that of other gastropods. The veliger is formed at an early stage of development. Next, the foot appears and is formed before the blastopore closes. At this point, both the velum and the shell are well developed. The anus and intestinal track are late in forming. The velum is lost and the young snail emerges as a well-formed snail. (Costello & Henley, 2000)
Urosalpinx cinerea, common name the eastern oyster drill or Atlantic oyster drill, is a species of small predatory sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Muricidae, the murexes or rock snails.
This snail uses chemoreception[2] to locate its invertebrate prey, which is typically a sessile or encrusting organism that is unable to escape its pursuer.[3] The chemoreception hunting strategy involves detecting microscopic particles that its prey releases into the sea water.[4]
The Atlantic oyster drill is a serious problem in commercial oyster beds, and it has been accidentally introduced well outside its natural range.
This snail is endemic to the Atlantic coast of North America, from Nova Scotia to Nassau Sound in[5] in Florida. It has been accidentally introduced with oyster spat to Northern Europe and to the West Coast of North America from California to Washington.[6] They range in areas with salinity and temperature changing seasonally and with the tidal currents.[7]
The shell is usually light brown or yellowish, rarely with several revolving, indistinct, rufous bands. Within the aperture varying from light flesh-color to dark salmon, chocolate or purple.
The fusiform shell is solid and thick and has a sharply pointed apex.
This animal is not physically able to close itself from its surrounding environment because of its siphonal canal.[8]
Sculpture: prominent broad ribs and numerous longitudinal folds, which are strong but rounded and wavelike, the intervals like the folds reversed. The aperture measures one-half the total length of shell. The aperture is long-oval, passing below into a vshort, open siphonal canal. The outer lip is thin.
The animal is small, the foot scarcely covering the aperture, very little dilated at the front angles, cream-colored, margined with lemon color beneath, punctured with light drab above. The siphon merely surpasses the tip of the siphonal canal. The head is scarcely protruded ; tentaeula nearly united at origin ; eyes black, at the outer upper third of tentacula, which third is a mere filament, are contractile. The motions of the shell are sluggish.
The eggs of Urosalpinx cinerea are contained in small transparent membranous parchment-like vases, each of which is attached by an expanded foot to some solid substance, usually the under surface of an overhanging rock, a little above low-tide mark. Each female deposits from ten or twelve to more than a hundred of these vases, the process of laying occupying several weeks. The vases are generally attached in more or less regular rows, covering sometimes an area of three or four square inches. In shape and size they are like the egg-cases of Purpura, but without the slight reddish tinge of the latter. They are flattened verticall}y, and their edges are marked by keel-like ridges. Owing to the lengthened period of oviposition, eggs and embryos in all stages of development are to be found in the various vases of a group, and the young escape from the firstlaid vases before the female has finished laying. Unlike the vases of Purpura each of which contains several hundred eggs, those of Urosalpinx contain only from six to twenty, ten or twelve being the usual number. All of these normally undergo development, and give rise to embryos. Occasionally a partially segmented egg or more advanced embryo becomes abortive and breaks up into separate cells, each of which remains alive for some time, and often swims actively by the motion of its cilia. These cosmelae and the yolk of the aborted eggs are drawn into the digestive cavities of other embryos, but this method of furnishing the young with food is exceptional and accidental. [9]
This species lives from low tide down to a depth of 25 feet. Its surroundings are rocky and shell beds.[3] It inhabits the lower third of the littoral zone, therefore it is sheltered from any waves the ocean produces.[5]
As indicated by its common name, this predatory snail drills through the shells of living oysters and consumes them. Its surroundings are rocky and shell beds.[3] It inhabits the lower third of the littoral zone, therefore it is sheltered from any waves the ocean produces.[5] It selects its food of choice by the odor of the prey.[3] Once it embraces the barnacle or mussel with its foot, it drills through the shell.[2] It feeds on many different species of invertebrates. A few favorites are the barnacle Balanus balanoides and the mussel Mytilus edulis. Food supply is mainly found in intertidal areas in the Atlantic region.[5] The Atlantic oyster drill finds its food by smell. They are found to be more responsive to living prey than to prey that has been killed recently in a lab.[4] However there is still no preference when it comes to the prey species or age.[4]
Just like any other animal, ecological factors affect the growth of an individual. The type of food, amount of food, and the amount of time given for a species to grow are all important factors.[5] Chloride and sodium, inorganic ions, are some of the major effectors of blood in marine and estuarine invertebrates, including the Atlantic oyster drill.[8]
They range in size, but male and female oyster drills average 24 millimeters and 28 millimeters, respectively. Not only are females longer, but they are also taller than their males[10]. Almost all Atlantic oyster drills reach their largest size after two full growing seasons. About 70% of their size is reached within this time span. In the next four or so years to come, there is little or no increase in size anymore.[5] Unfortunately, there is no protected way to check the sex of these gastropods. Their shell must be crushed in order to see the genitalia using a microscope. Although some females possess a small vestigial formation that may look like a penis, other parts are used to confirm the sex. Finding the egg capsule gland, ovary, and any sperm ingesting glands make it easier to identify the oyster drill as a female.[10]
Due to their ability of "drilling" into shells, the destruction of their nature can cost millions of dollars every single year.[7]
This snail is a serious problem in commercial oyster farming:
"Next to the sea star, this snail is the worst enemy the ... [oyster fisher men] ... have to contend with. ...Settling upon a young bivalve, the oyster drill quickly bores a neat round hole through a valve, making expert use of its sandpaperlike radula. Through this perforation the oyster drill is able to insert its long proboscis and consume the soft parts of the oyster."[11]
Advocates of making use of bycatch, rather than discarding it, have promoted the oyster drill as a food, similar to escargot.[12]
Urosalpinx cinerea, common name the eastern oyster drill or Atlantic oyster drill, is a species of small predatory sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Muricidae, the murexes or rock snails.
This snail uses chemoreception to locate its invertebrate prey, which is typically a sessile or encrusting organism that is unable to escape its pursuer. The chemoreception hunting strategy involves detecting microscopic particles that its prey releases into the sea water.
The Atlantic oyster drill is a serious problem in commercial oyster beds, and it has been accidentally introduced well outside its natural range.
