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Brief Summary ( англиски )

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According to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Virus, the genus Norovirus has one species, which is called "Norwalk virus" and assigned the abbreviation "NV". The norovirus was originally named the "Norwalk agent" after Norwalk, Ohio, in the United States, where an outbreak of acute gastroenteritis occurred among children at Bronson Elementary School in November 1968. In 1972, electron microscopy on stored human stool samples identified a virus, which was given the name "Norwalk virus." Numerous outbreaks with similar symptoms have been reported since. The cloning and sequencing of the Norwalk virus genome showed these viruses have a genomic organization consistent with viruses belonging to the family Caliciviridae (Kapikian 1996). The name was shortened to "norovirus" after being identified in a number of outbreaks on cruise ships and receiving attention throughout the United States. The name "norovirus" (Norovirus for the genus) was approved by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses in 2002 (ICTVdB Management 2006).
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Roskildesyge ( дански )

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Roskildesyge
Klassifikation Norovirus EM PHIL 2172 lores.jpgInformationNavn RoskildesygeSKS DA08.1ICD-10 A08.1MeSH D009663Rediger på Wikidata Information med symbolet Billede af blyant hentes fra Wikidata. Kildehenvisninger foreligger sammesteds.

Roskildesyge er det danske navn for den smitsomme maveinfektion Norwalk disease, forårsaget af norovirus. Symptomerne omfatter opkastning, diarré og ondt i maven. Hos voksne ophører symptomerne normalt efter et par dage, mens det for børn sædvanligvis varer i en uges tid.

Smitte sker typisk ved kontakt med forurenede genstande, personer eller via fødevarer. Der skal meget lidt virus til at inficere et menneske.

Sygdommen udbryder ofte på hospitaler, institutioner og lignende steder. Lidelsen optræder oftest om vinteren.

Behandling

Da diarré og opkastninger fører til dehydrering, bør man kompensere ved at drikke vand, samt spise fast føde for at genoprette eventuel relateret saltmangel. Et gammelt husråd lyder på at drikke cola eller andre sukkerholdige drikke. Cola indeholder ingen specielle ingredienser som hjælper mod virus, andet end at det er rent vand og sukker. Vand hjælper mod dehydreringen og sukkeret er ernærende.

Navnets oprindelse

En tredjedel af Roskildes indbyggere blev i vinteren 1935 ramt af let feber, svimmelhed, opkastning og diarré. Epidemien i Roskilde blev omtalt i Ugeskrift for Læger i januar 1936, og her brugtes navnet Roskildesyge for første gang.[kilde mangler]

Kilder

1 Diarrhoea and vomiting caused by gastroenteritis in children under 5 years: summary of NICE guidance

Noter


Stub
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Roskildesyge: Brief Summary ( дански )

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Roskildesyge er det danske navn for den smitsomme maveinfektion Norwalk disease, forårsaget af norovirus. Symptomerne omfatter opkastning, diarré og ondt i maven. Hos voksne ophører symptomerne normalt efter et par dage, mens det for børn sædvanligvis varer i en uges tid.

Smitte sker typisk ved kontakt med forurenede genstande, personer eller via fødevarer. Der skal meget lidt virus til at inficere et menneske.

Sygdommen udbryder ofte på hospitaler, institutioner og lignende steder. Lidelsen optræder oftest om vinteren.

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Humane Noroviren ( германски )

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Die Spezies Norwalk-Virus (Humanes Norovirus, en. Norwalk virus, abgekürzt NwV, auch NWV oder NV) der humanpathogenen Noroviren umfasst unbehüllte, einzelsträngige RNA-Viren mit positiver Polarität aus der Familie Caliciviridae, Gattung Norovirus. Noro- ist ein künstlich gebildetes Präfix aus Norwalk, das 2004 offizielle taxonomische Bezeichnung wurde. Die hochkontagiösen (hochansteckenden) Noroviren verursachen beim Menschen neben zahlreichen weiteren Viren die viralen Gastroenteritiden (viraler Brechdurchfall, auch umgangssprachlich als Magen-Darm-Grippe bezeichnet). Sie sind neben den Rotaviren aus der Familie der Reoviridae für die Mehrzahl der nicht bakteriell verursachten Durchfallerkrankungen beim Menschen verantwortlich. Der Nachweis von humanen Noroviren ist in Deutschland nach Infektionsschutzgesetz namentlich meldepflichtig.

Erstbeschreibung

Als erstes humanes Norovirus wurde das Norwalk-Virus in Stuhlproben eines viralen Gastroenteritis-Ausbruchs von 1968 in Norwalk, Ohio, durch Immunelektronenmikroskopie 1972 erstmals morphologisch charakterisiert.[3] Um den Zusammenhang zwischen dem gefundenen Virus und einer Gastroenteritis-Erkrankung beweisen zu können, wurde gereinigtes Stuhl-Ultrafiltrat (gewonnen aus menschlichem Kot erkrankter Patienten) an Freiwillige oral verabreicht, welche anschließend ebenfalls erkrankten. Dies ist die einzige mit Stand November 2018 vom International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) bestätigte Spezies der Gattung Norovirus.[4]

Virologie

Hauptartikel: Norovirus

Morphologie

 src=
Humane Noroviren im TEM nach Nega­tiv­kontras­tierung (Markierung entspr. 50 nm)

Noroviren haben einen Durchmesser von 35 bis 39 nm. Sie weisen im elektronenmikroskopischen Bild eine sehr unscharfe, runde Struktur auf. Sie besitzen ein ikosaedrisches (zwanzigflächiges) Kapsid (T=3-Symmetrie) und ein ca. 7,3 bis 7,7 kB großes Genom. Wie die meisten einzelsträngigen RNA-Viren sind Noroviren sehr variabel in ihrer Genomsequenz, weshalb zahlreiche verschiedene Subtypen und Isolate bekannt sind. Sie zeigen Antigendrift und auch eine saisonale Antigenshift durch genetische Rekombination zwischen unterschiedlichen Norovirusstämmen.[5]

Klassifikation

Vorläufig werden drei humanpathogene Norovirus-Spezies, nämlich die Spezies Norwalk-Virus und die selteneren Spezies Humanes Norovirus Alphatron und Humanes Norovirus Saitama, innerhalb der Gattung Norovirus unterschieden. Die Spezies Norwalk-Virus – als einzige vom ICTV mit Stand November 2018 bestätigte Spezies der Gattung – wird derzeit in 7 Subtypen unterteilt, wobei vier dieser Subtypen, basierend auf der Aminosäurensequenz des VP1-Kapsidproteins, wiederum zu sehr umfangreichen Genogruppen 1–4 (GGI bis GGIV) zusammengefasst werden können.[6][7] Derzeit ist vornehmlich Genotyp GII (im Speziellen GII.4) verantwortlich für Infektionen, gefolgt von GI und GIV.[8] Die Isolate und Subtypen werden nach einem internationalen Schema benannt und klassifiziert:[9]

  • Spezies Norwalk-Virus (Humanes Norovirus, en. Norwalk virus)
  • Subtyp Norwalk-Virus (Hu/NV/NV/1968/US)
  • Subtyp Desert-Shield-Virus (Hu/NV/DSV395/1990/SR)
  • Subtyp Hawaii-Virus (Hu/NV/HV/1971/US)
  • Subtyp Lordsdale-Virus (Hu/NV/LD/1993/UK)
  • Subtyp Mexiko-Virus (Hu/NV/MX/1989/MX)
  • Subtyp Snow-Mountain-Virus (Hu/NV/SMV/1976/US)
  • Subtyp Southampton-Virus (Hu/NV/SHV/1991/UK)

Weitere Norovirus-Subtypen wurden in anderen Säugetieren entdeckt, wie in Schweinen, Rindern, Schafen, Katzen und Nagetieren. Die meisten molekularbiologischen Untersuchungen zu Norovirus werden an dem Murine Norovirus durchgeführt.[9]

Epidemiologie

Noroviren sind weltweit verbreitet. Jährlich kommt es zu ca. 685 Millionen Noroviruserkrankungen, welche 18 % der weltweiten akuten Gastroenteritisfälle ausmachen.[8]

Endemische Norovirusinfektionen wurden bislang v. a. in Krankenhäusern (gehäuft in geriatrischen Abteilungen) und Alten- oder Pflegeheimen nachgewiesen. In der Schweiz muss Schätzungen zufolge jährlich mit 400.000 bis 600.000 Infektionen durch diese Viren gerechnet werden. In Deutschland wurden für das Meldejahr 2013 89.322 labordiagnostisch bestätigte Fälle (Referenzdefinition seit 2011) an das Robert Koch-Institut übermittelt. 19 % davon wurden im Rahmen von Ausbrüchen registriert, davon etwa 2/3 in Krankenhäusern oder Alten- und Pflegeheimen, 1/7 in Kindergärten und Kindertagesstätten.[10] Bis in die 1990er Jahre war die Norovirus-Diagnostik wenigen Speziallaboratorien vorbehalten. Seit käufliche Immuntests zur Verfügung stehen, kann auch häufiger eine spezifische Infektion mit Noroviren nachgewiesen werden.

Im Herbst 2012 haben sich in Ostdeutschland fast elftausend Menschen durch aus China importierte Erdbeeren mit dem Norovirus infiziert. Der Norovirus-Ausbruch 2012 sorgte für große Medienaufmerksamkeit.[11]

Norovirusinfektionen treten in Mitteleuropa saisonal gehäuft in den Monaten November bis März auf, die Aktivität ist in den Sommermonaten nur etwa ein Zehntel so groß wie im Winter. Die durch eine Infektion erworbene Immunität gegen einen Virenstamm hält länger an als bis zur nächsten Saison, sodass der Erreger einem hohen Selektionsdruck durch Herdenimmunität ausgesetzt ist. Diesem weicht er durch Gendrift und -Shift aus.[12]

Epidemiologische Studien zeigten, dass Personen je nach den von ihnen gebildeten Histo-Blutgruppen Antigenen von spezifischen NoV Genotypen infiziert wurden. Genotyp GII.4, der die meisten Infektionen verursacht (zurzeit weitverbreitester Genotyp, epidemie) bindet mehr verschiedene HBGA als jeder andere Genotyp. Menschen, die durch eine homozygotische Mutation eine nicht funktionale Fucosyltransferase besitzen, sogenannte Non-secretors, produzieren kein ABH-Antigen und sind deutlich weniger anfällig für eine Norovirus Infektion (haben jedoch keinen absoluten Schutz). Etwa 20 % aller Europiden sind Non-secretors.[13][14]

Zwischen März und August 2017 kam es in Quebec, Kanada, zu einem Ausbruch des Norovirus, an dem mehr als 700 Menschen erkrankten. Laut einer Untersuchung der kanadischen CFIA Food Control Agency wurde das Virus durch gefrorene Himbeeren eingetragen, die aus China importiert wurden.[15]

Übertragung

Mit einer minimalen Infektionsdosis von nur 10 bis 100 Viruspartikeln ist die Kontagiosität der Noroviren außerordentlich hoch. Die Übertragung erfolgt von Mensch zu Mensch über eine Schmier- bzw. Tröpfcheninfektion. Die Viren werden über Stuhl oder Erbrochenes ausgeschieden und gelangen auf fäkal-oralem Weg, beim Einatmen des beim Erbrechen entstehenden Aerosols oder über kontaminierte Hände auf die Schleimhäute der Kontaktperson. Die Ansteckung mit Viren kann ebenfalls über kontaminierte Gegenstände erfolgen. Ferner ist eine Aufnahme der Erreger über kontaminiertes Wasser möglich, dies kann zum einen über Speisen und Getränke, welche mit kontaminiertem Wasser zubereitet wurden, aber auch durch das Trinken von verunreinigtem Leitungswasser erfolgen.[16] Humane Noroviren weisen die für unbehüllte Viren typische Resistenz gegenüber Umwelteinflüssen auf. Sie können im Wasser mehrere Tage bis Wochen bei 25 °C überstehen,[17] sie überstehen Temperaturschwankungen von −20 bis +60 °C und zeigten ihre „Überlebensfähigkeit“ auf einem kontaminierten Teppich noch nach zwölf Tagen.

In der Regel werden die Viren von erkrankten Personen während der akuten Erkrankung, aber auch nach Abklingen der klinischen Symptome ausgeschieden. Der Höhepunkt der Ausscheidung ist üblicherweise 4 Tage nach der Infektion, also meist nach dem Abklingen der Symptome. Auch symptomlose Infizierte können Virusausscheider sein. In einer Studie mit absichtlicher Infektion konnte das Virus im Median 4 Wochen nach Infektion im Stuhl nachgewiesen werden.[18] Daher ist die sorgfältige Beachtung üblicher Hygieneregeln auch im Anschluss an die Erkrankung von sehr großer Bedeutung.

Besonders gefährdet sind die Bewohner sowie das Personal von Gemeinschaftseinrichtungen aller Art, da durch Benutzung z. B. gemeinsamer Toiletten ein lokaler Ausbruch gefördert wird. In den letzten Jahren waren häufig auch Kreuzfahrtschiffe betroffen.[19]

Virale RNA von humanen Norovirus-Subtypen konnte in Stuhlproben aus Viehbeständen nachgewiesen werden, ebenso wurden Antikörper gegen tierische Norovirus-Subtypen in asymptomatischen Menschen gefunden. Dies bedeutet möglicherweise, dass Noroviren zoonotisch sind.[20][21]

Krankheitsverlauf und Symptome

Akute Erkrankung

Die Inkubationszeit der von den humanen Noroviren beim Menschen ausgelösten Erkrankung beträgt ca. 10–50 Stunden. Krankheitssymptome entwickeln sich innerhalb weniger Stunden bis Tage und bestehen in erster Linie aus einer Gastroenteritis mit plötzlich auftretendem Durchfall und Erbrechen, die zu erheblichen Flüssigkeitsverlusten (siehe Exsikkose) führen können. Daher sind besonders Kinder und ältere Menschen gefährdet. Meist besteht ein ausgeprägtes Krankheitsgefühl mit Bauchschmerzen, Übelkeit, Kopfschmerzen und Muskelschmerzen.

Die Erkrankung verläuft meist kurz und heftig und klingt nach ein bis drei Tagen wieder ab. Erbrechen kommt bei mehr als 50 % der Patienten vor, wobei Jugendliche mehr an Erbrechen, Erwachsene mehr an Durchfall leiden.

Chronische Erkrankung

In Patienten mit einem geschwächten Immunsystem, z. B. durch das Variable Immundefektsyndrom oder Immunsuppression nach einer Transplantation, kann es zu einer chronischen Infektion mit Norovirus kommen.[22] Norovirus kann über mehrere Jahre hinweg im Stuhl nachgewiesen werden. Patienten können an lang andauerndem Durchfall leiden, die Infektion verläuft aber auch phasenweise asymptomatisch. In schweren Fällen kommt es zu Norovirus-assoziierter Enteropathie, was zu Zottenatrophie und Malassimilation führen kann.[22]

Folgen und Komplikationen

Je nach Schwere der Erkrankung kann der Wasserverlust durch die Norovirusinfektion ohne Behandlung auch zum Tod führen. Noroviren sind verantwortlich für jährlich ca. 220 000 Todesfälle weltweit, zu größten Teilen jedoch in Ländern mit geringen und mittlerem Einkommen. Die Todesrate liegt hier bei 0,037 % verglichen mit einer Todesrate von 0,005 % in Ländern mit hohem Einkommen. Besonders betroffen sind mit 70 bis 80 % ältere Menschen ab 80 Jahren und Kinder unter 4 Jahren.[8] Seit 2001 besteht in Deutschland Meldepflicht für die Erkrankung. Nach Angaben des Robert Koch-Instituts (RKI) lag die Anzahl der Verstorbenen an den Noroviren in Deutschland wie folgt:[23]

Nachweis

Medizin

Im Rahmen der medizinischen Diagnostik ist es möglich, jedoch nicht immer sinnvoll, Noroviren in Stuhlproben nachzuweisen. Die am häufigsten angewandte, jedoch auch teuerste Methode ist die RT-PCR (Nachweis über Reverse Transkription mit anschließender Polymerase-Kettenreaktion). Sie verfügt über eine hohe Sensitivität und Spezifität. Weitere verfügbare Nachweismethoden sind der ELISA (geringere Spezifität) und die Elektronenmikroskopie. Eine Virusisolierung in Zellkultur kann durch Zugabe von bestimmten Darmbakterien erreicht werden.[24]

Besondere Bedeutung kommt dem Erregernachweis im Rahmen von Ausbrüchen zu, da diese besondere hygienische Maßnahmen erforderlich machen. Allerdings wird nicht jede Erkrankung auf den Erreger hin untersucht, daher entsprechen die Meldezahlen nicht dem wahren Ausmaß der Erkrankung. Auch aufgrund einer fehlenden spezifischen Therapie wird die Notwendigkeit einer teuren Stuhldiagnostik von Fachleuten bezweifelt, wenn im Umfeld bereits Gastroenteritiden durch Noroviren nachgewiesen wurden. Eine Untersuchung auf Noroviren bei jedem einzelnen Patienten ist daher medizinisch unnötig und wenig wirtschaftlich, wenn Erkrankungsfälle in der Umgebung bekannt sind und die klassischen klinischen Symptome vorhanden sind.

Lebensmittel

Problematisch für die Lebensmittelanalytik ist die Tatsache, dass Noroviren der Genogruppe I und II auf den Menschen wirtsspezifisch sind und bislang noch keine Zellkultur erhältlich ist, die eine Vermehrung ermöglicht.[25] Daher muss für die Untersuchung von Lebensmitteln stets eine Extraktion und Aufkonzentrierung erfolgen. Gemäß der amtlichen Methodensammlung LFGB L 00.00-147/2 (Übernahme der gleichlautenden Norm DIN CEN ISO/TS 15216-2) sind Wiederfindungsraten von 1 % bezogen auf weiche Lebensmittel mit rauer Oberfläche (wie Erdbeeren) bereits als akzeptabel zu bewerten. Die Infektiosität der Viruspartikel ist sehr hoch. Die analytische Nachweisgrenze ist in dem Hinblick in Lebensmitteln methodisch bedingt sehr schlecht. Aufgrund labortechnischer Limitierungen ist daher stets mit Unterbefunden zu rechnen, die zu einer nicht unerheblichen Dunkelziffer bei der Aufklärung von Norovirus-assoziierten Lebensmittelinfektionen führt.[26] Insbesondere TK-Früchte, die aus Regenmangelgebieten und hygienisch unterentwickelten Ländern eingeführt werden, sind daher stets mit einem nicht unerheblichen Risiko behaftet, das durch Analysen im Labor nicht vollständig ausgeschlossen werden kann.[27]

Behandlung

Eine ursächliche antivirale Therapie ist nicht bekannt; die Behandlung ist rein symptomatisch und besteht lediglich im Ausgleich des Flüssigkeits- und Elektrolytverlustes (z. B. Natrium, Magnesium, Kalium, Kalzium, …). Bei starkem Erbrechen kann der Einsatz von übelkeitsmindernden Medikamenten (Antiemetika) erwogen werden. Insbesondere bei älteren Patienten oder Kleinkindern kann ein kurzer Krankenhausaufenthalt notwendig sein.

Vorbeugung

Impfstoff-Forschung

Eine vorbeugende Impfung ist bislang nicht verfügbar. Erste experimentelle Impfstoffe sind in Entwicklung.[28] Daher liegt der Schwerpunkt der Vorbeugung darauf, die Infektionskette zu unterbrechen.

Hygienische Maßnahmen

Durch die Einhaltung von Hygienemaßnahmen sowie Einzel- oder Kohortenisolierung kann die Übertragung der Erreger begrenzt werden.[29] Dazu gehören vor allem die sorgfältige Händedesinfektion mit einem viruziden Händedesinfektionsmittel, dessen Wirkungsspektrum auch unbehüllte Viren mit einschließt, und gegebenenfalls die Verwendung von Atemschutzmasken mit hoher Schutzwirkung (Kategorie FFP-3), sowie die Desinfektion von kontaminierten Flächen bzw. Materialien.

Seifen und Handtücher sollten nicht von mehreren Personen gemeinsam benutzt werden, da die Noroviren gegen übliche Seifen und haushaltsübliche Desinfektionsmittel resistent sind. Häufiges Händewaschen reduziert jedoch durch die mechanische Entfernung von Viren eine Übertragung erheblich.

In medizinischen Einrichtungen wie Krankenhäusern müssen mit Noroviren kontaminierte Materialien als gefährliche Abfälle gekennzeichnet und entsorgt werden, um Neuinfektionen bei anderen Patienten und Personal zu vermeiden. Kittel, Handschuhe und Mund-Nasen-Schutz sind wegen der hohen Infektionsgefahr bereits nach einmaliger Verwendung dem infektiösen Abfall zuzuführen. Dieser wird unmittelbar am Ort des Anfallens, z. B. im Patientenzimmer, in verschlossenen Behältern gesammelt und ist vor dem Abtransport mit viruziden Mitteln äußerlich zu desinfizieren. Kontaminierte und auch mit Stuhl verunreinigte Wäsche (Leib-, Bettwäsche) muss als Infektionswäsche nach dem Doppelsack-Prinzip entsorgt werden.[30]

Desinfektionsmittel und Inaktivierungsverfahren

Gegen Noroviren wirksame Händedesinfektionsmittel enthalten neben Ethanol – ab 80 Volumenprozent (Vol%) – ggf. noch weitere wirksame Bestandteile. Hier kommen z. B. Orthophosphorsäure, Zitronensäure, Milchsäure, Harnstoff etc. in Frage.[31][32][33][34] Untersuchungen haben gezeigt, dass die Effektivität von Alkohol durch die Zugabe von Harnstoff und Citronensäure erheblich gesteigert werden kann.[35] Insbesondere Citronensäure ist in der Lage, Oberflächenproteine des Norovirus so zu verändern, dass die Infektiosität hierdurch wahrscheinlich verringert wird.[36]

Nach Kingsley et al.[37] seien chlorhaltige Desinfektionsmittel zur Flächendesinfektion am wirksamsten. Bezüglich weiterer Substanzen wurde z. B. festgestellt, dass Peressigsäure innerhalb von 10 Minuten und Glutaraldehyd (1 %) innerhalb von 1 Minute bei Raumtemperatur auf mit Noroviren kontaminierten Arbeitsflächen und Oberflächen von Gemüse, Tomaten, Salat, Erdbeeren wirksam war.[38] Quaternäre Ammoniumverbindungen, die bakterizid sind, zeigten dagegen widersprüchliche Ergebnisse in der Noro-Virusinaktiverung. F. v. Rheinbaben berichtet über die virusinaktivierende Wirkung von angesäuerter Kaliumpermanganat-Lösung (pH 3, bei 0,1 % bis 0,5 % Kaliumpermanganat) innerhalb von 5 bis 60 Minuten.[39] Die virusinaktivierende Oxidationsreaktion ist abgeschlossen, wenn ein Farbumschlag von violett nach farblos erfolgt, allerdings werden dadurch auch Bakterien abgetötet.

Nach dem Norovirus-Ausbruch 2012 in Ostdeutschland, bei dem roh verzehrte Erdbeeren zu verstärkten Infektionen führten, wurde diskutiert, ob ein Durcherhitzen Noroviren sicher inaktivieren kann. Da Zellkultursysteme bisher nicht verfügbar sind, kann die verbliebene Infektiosität nach Erhitzung und den pH-Wert-Einflüssen nicht gemessen werden. Das Bundesinstitut für Risikobewertung (BfR) geht aufgrund der wissenschaftlichen Datenlage davon aus, dass ein nur kurzes Aufkochen bei der Herstellung von Kompottspeisen nicht ausreicht, um Noroviren in kontaminierten tiefgefrorenen Früchten sicher unschädlich zu machen.[40] Eine wesentliche Reduktion kann nur durch längeres Erhitzen (200 °C für 12 Minuten) oder Kochen (100 °C für 30 Minuten) erfolgen. Das Tiefgefrieren (−18 °C) von kontaminierten Lebensmitteln hat ebenso keinen wesentlichen Effekt.[41]

Literatur

Einzelnachweise

  1. a b c d e ICTV: ICTV Taxonomy history: Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus, EC 51, Berlin, Germany, July 2019; Email ratification March 2020 (MSL #35)
  2. ICTV Master Species List 2018b v1 MSL #34, Feb. 2019
  3. R. Dolin, N. R. Blacklow u. a.: Biological properties of Norwalk agent of acute infectious nonbacterial gastroenteritis. In: Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. Band 140, Nummer 2, Juni 1972, S. 578–583. PMID 4624851.
  4. Master Species List 2018a v1. ICTV, MSL including all taxa updates since the 2017 release. Fall 2018 (MSL #33)
  5. Laborlexikon: Noroviren. In: laborlexikon.de. 25. Januar 2011, abgerufen am 21. Januar 2015.
  6. Ramirez S, Giammanco GM, De Grazia S, Colomba C, Martella V, Arista S: Genotyping of GII.4 and GIIb norovirus RT-PCR amplicons by RFLP analysis. In: J. Virol. Methods. 147, Nr. 2, 2008, S. 250–6. doi:10.1016/j.jviromet.2007.09.005. PMID 17953996.
  7. Kroneman, A., Vega, E., Vennema, H. et al.: Proposal for a unified norovirus nomenclature and genotyping. In: Archives of Virology. 158, Nr. 10 pages=2059–2068, 2013. doi:10.1007/s00705-013-1708-5.
  8. a b c Lopman BA, Steele D, Kirkwood CD, Parashar UD: The Vast and Varied Global Burden of Norovirus: Prospects for Prevention and Control. In: PLOS Medicine. 13, Nr. 4, 2016. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001999.
  9. a b Claude M. Fauquet, M. A. Mayo (Hrsg.): Virus Taxonomy: Eighth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Academic Press, 2005, ISBN 0-08-057548-X, S. 847 (eingeschränkte Vorschau in der Google-Buchsuche).
  10. Infektionsepidemiologisches Jahrbuch meldepflichtiger Krankheiten. Robert Koch-Institut, 2013.
  11. Brechdurchfall in Ostdeutschland: China-Erdbeeren waren mit Noroviren verseucht. In: Spiegel Online. 8. Oktober 2012, abgerufen am 21. Januar 2015.
  12. B. Lopman, M. Zambon, D. W. Brown: The evolution of norovirus, the „gastric flu“. In: PLoS medicine. Band 5, Nummer 2, Februar 2008, S. e42, doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050042. PMID 18271623, PMC 2235896 (freier Volltext) (Review).
  13. L. Lindesmith, C. Moe, S. Marionneau u. a.: Human susceptibility and resistance to Norwalk virus infection. In: Nature Medicine. 9(5), Mai 2003, S. 548–553. Epub 2003 Apr 14. PMID 12692541.
  14. Reto Krapf: Häufige Krankheiten – modern behandelt: Norovirus-Infektion. In: nzz.ch. 27. März 2013, abgerufen am 21. Januar 2015.
  15. Dave Sherwood: How a Chilean raspberry scam dodged food safety controls from China to Canada. In: Reuters. Archiviert vom Original am 10. Oktober 2020. Abgerufen am 10. Oktober 2020.
  16. Leena Maunula, Ilkka T. Miettinen, Carl-Henrik von Bonsdorff: Von Trinkwasser ausgehende Norovirus-Epidemien. In: Umwelt, Medizin, Gesellschaft. Band 19, 2006, S. 140–145. (PDF (Memento vom 27. Februar 2012 im Internet Archive), Übersetzung von L. Maunula, I. T. Miettinen, C.-H. von Bonsdorff: Norovirus Outbreaks from Drinking Water. In: Emerging Infectious Diseases. Band 11, Ausgabe 11, 2005, S. 1716–1721. PMID 16318723, PMC 3367355 (freier Volltext)).
  17. J. Bae, K. J. Schwab: Evaluation of murine norovirus, feline calicivirus, poliovirus, and MS2 as surrogates for human norovirus in a model of viral persistence in surface water and groundwater. In: Applied Environmental Microbiology. Band 74, Ausgabe 2, 2008, S. 477–484. PMID 18065626, PMC 2223264 (freier Volltext).
  18. Robert L. Atmar, Antone R. Opekun, Mark A. Gilger u. a.: Norwalk Virus Shedding after Experimental Human Infection. In: Emerging Infectious Diseases. 14(10), Okt 2008, S. 1553–1557. PMID 18826818 (online)
  19. „Freedom of the Seas“: Virus wütet erneut auf größtem Kreuzfahrtschiff der Welt. In: Spiegel Online. 12. Dezember 2006, abgerufen am 21. Januar 2015.
  20. K. Mattison, A. Shukla u. a: Human noroviruses in swine and cattle.. In: Emerging infectious diseases. 13, Nr. 8, 2007, S. 1184–1188. doi:10.3201/eid1308.070005. PMID 17953089.
  21. Widdowson MA, Rockx B, Schepp R et al.: Detection of serum antibodies to bovine norovirus in veterinarians and the general population in the Netherlands.. In: Journal of Medical Virology. 76, 2005, S. 119-128. doi:10.1002/jmv.20333.
  22. a b Bok, K. and Green, K. Y: Norovirus Gastroenteritis in Immunocompromised Patients. In: New England Journal of Medicine. 368, Nr. 10, 16. März 2013, S. 971. doi:10.1056/NEJMc1301022. PMID 23465122. PMC 4793940 (freier Volltext).
  23. Infektionsepidemiologisches Jahrbuch. In: rki.de. 2011, abgerufen am 21. Januar 2015.
  24. M. K. Jones, M. Watanabe u. a.: Enteric bacteria promote human and mouse norovirus infection of B cells. In: Science. Band 346, Nummer 6210, November 2014, S. 755–759, doi:10.1126/science.1257147. PMID 25378626.
  25. B. Schütze: Lebensmittel assoziierte Risiken durch EHEC und Noroviren, Food Science Meets Industry 2013, Hamburg School of Food Science, Universität Hamburg 18. Februar 2013
  26. Noroviren in Lebensmitteln: Falsch-negative Analysenergebnisse bei Früchten möglich, LABO Online, 11. Februar 2014
  27. LADR informiert: Noroviren auf Lebensmitteln (Memento vom 19. März 2013 im Internet Archive) (PDF) November 2012.
  28. Lars Fischer: Durchfall: Duell mit dem perfekten Virus. In: spektrum.de. 15. August 2012, abgerufen am 21. Januar 2015.
  29. Christina Berndt: Wie man sich Noroviren am besten vom Leib hält. In: Süddeutsche Zeitung. 21. Februar 2012, abgerufen am 27. Januar 2013.
  30. Mit Noroviren kontaminierten Abfall richtig entsorgen. Abfallmanager Medizin, 1. Oktober 2017, abgerufen am 9. August 2018.
  31. Friedrich von Rheinbaben, Handbuch viruswirksamer Desinfektionsmittel, 2002, S. 113ff.
  32. R. Nims, M. Plavsic: Inactivation of Caliciviruses. In: Pharmaceuticals (Basel), 2013 Mar, 6(3), S. 358–392. Review, doi:10.3390/ph6030358, PMC 3816691 (freier Volltext). Mit 123 Referenzen über chemisch-physikalische Inaktivierung von Caliciviren-Noroviren.
  33. Europäische Patentanmeldung der Firma B Braun EP 1 685 854 A1: A virucidal disinfectant with broad spectrum action, which is based on alcohol, acidic phosphorus compounds and polyalkylene glycols
  34. Deutsche Patentveröffentlichung DE-C1-4424325 "Phosphorsäure bis 3 % und Butanon in viruziden Desinfektionsmitteln"
  35. G. Ionidis et al.: Development and virucidal activity of a novel alcohol-based hand disinfectant supplemented with urea and citric acid. In: BMC Infectious Diseases 16, 2007, S. 77. doi:10.1186/s12879-016-1410-9, PMID 26864562.
  36. A. D. Koromyslova, P. A. White, G. S. Hansman: Treatment of norovirus particles with citrate. In: Virology. 485, Nov 2015, S. 199–204, doi:10.1016/j.virol.2015.07.009, PMID 26295280
  37. David H. Kingsley, Emily M. Vincent, Gloria K. Meadea, Clytrice L. Watsonb, Xuetong Fanc: Inactivation of human norovirus using chemical sanitizers. In: International Journal of Food Microbiology. Volume 171, 3. Februar 2014, S. 94–99, PMID 24334094.
  38. B. R. Gulati, P. B. Allwood et al.: Efficacy of commonly used disinfectants for the inactivation of calicivirus on strawberry, lettuce, and food-contact surface. In: J Food Prot. 64, 2001, S. 1430–1434, PMID 11563523.
  39. Handbuch Virus wirksamer Desinfektionsmittel. ISBN 978-3-642-63179-5, S. 69.
  40. BfR: Tenazität (Widerstandsfähigkeit) von Noroviren in Erdbeerkompott (PDF) Stellungnahme Nr. 038/2012 vom 6. Oktober 2012.
  41. Nicola Siegmund-Schultze: Gastroenteritis-Ausbruch: Noroviren in Tiefkühlkost. In: Dtsch Arztebl. Band 109, Nr. 41, 2012 (aerzteblatt.de [abgerufen am 2. April 2017]).
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Humane Noroviren: Brief Summary ( германски )

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Die Spezies Norwalk-Virus (Humanes Norovirus, en. Norwalk virus, abgekürzt NwV, auch NWV oder NV) der humanpathogenen Noroviren umfasst unbehüllte, einzelsträngige RNA-Viren mit positiver Polarität aus der Familie Caliciviridae, Gattung Norovirus. Noro- ist ein künstlich gebildetes Präfix aus Norwalk, das 2004 offizielle taxonomische Bezeichnung wurde. Die hochkontagiösen (hochansteckenden) Noroviren verursachen beim Menschen neben zahlreichen weiteren Viren die viralen Gastroenteritiden (viraler Brechdurchfall, auch umgangssprachlich als Magen-Darm-Grippe bezeichnet). Sie sind neben den Rotaviren aus der Familie der Reoviridae für die Mehrzahl der nicht bakteriell verursachten Durchfallerkrankungen beim Menschen verantwortlich. Der Nachweis von humanen Noroviren ist in Deutschland nach Infektionsschutzgesetz namentlich meldepflichtig.

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Norwalk virus ( англиски )

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Norovirus, sometimes referred to as the winter vomiting disease, is the most common cause of gastroenteritis.[1][6] Infection is characterized by non-bloody diarrhea, vomiting, and stomach pain.[2][3] Fever or headaches may also occur.[2] Symptoms usually develop 12 to 48 hours after being exposed, and recovery typically occurs within one to three days.[2] Complications are uncommon, but may include dehydration, especially in the young, the old, and those with other health problems.[2]

The virus is usually spread by the fecal–oral route.[3] This may be through contaminated food or water or person-to-person contact.[3] It may also spread via contaminated surfaces or through air from the vomit of an infected person.[3] Risk factors include unsanitary food preparation and sharing close quarters.[3] Diagnosis is generally based on symptoms.[3] Confirmatory testing is not usually available but may be performed by public health agencies during outbreaks.[3]

Prevention involves proper hand washing and disinfection of contaminated surfaces.[4] There is no vaccine or specific treatment for norovirus.[4][5] Management involves supportive care such as drinking sufficient fluids or intravenous fluids.[5] Oral rehydration solutions are the preferred fluids to drink, although other drinks without caffeine or alcohol can help.[5] Alcohol-based hand sanitizers are not effective against the norovirus, according to the NHS information page on the subject;[8] this is due to norovirus being a non-enveloped virus.

Norovirus results in about 685 million cases of disease and 200,000 deaths globally a year.[6][7] It is common both in the developed and developing world.[3][9] Those under the age of five are most often affected, and in this group it results in about 50,000 deaths in the developing world.[6] Norovirus infections occur more commonly during winter months.[6] It often occurs in outbreaks, especially among those living in close quarters.[3] In the United States, it is the cause of about half of all foodborne disease outbreaks.[3] The virus is named after the city of Norwalk, Ohio, US where an outbreak occurred in 1968.[10][11]

Signs and symptoms

Norovirus infection is characterized by nausea, vomiting, watery diarrhea, abdominal pain, and in some cases, loss of taste. A person usually develops symptoms of gastroenteritis 12 to 48 hours after being exposed to norovirus.[12] General lethargy, weakness, muscle aches, headaches, and low-grade fevers may occur. The disease is usually self-limiting, and severe illness is rare. Although having norovirus can be unpleasant, it is not usually dangerous, and most who contract it make a full recovery within two to three days.[1]

Norovirus can establish a long term infection in people who are immunocompromised, such as those with common variable immunodeficiency or with a suppressed immune system after organ transplantation.[13] These infections can be with or without symptoms.[13] In severe cases, persistent infections can lead to norovirus‐associated enteropathy, intestinal villous atrophy, and malabsorption.[13]

Virology

Transmission

Noroviruses are transmitted directly from person to person (62–84% of all reported outbreaks)[14] and indirectly via contaminated water and food. They are extremely contagious, and fewer than twenty virus particles can cause an infection[15] (some research suggests as few as five).[16] Transmission can be aerosolized when those stricken with the illness vomit, and can be aerosolized by a toilet flush when vomit or diarrhea is present; infection can follow eating food or breathing air near an episode of vomiting, even if cleaned up.[17] The viruses continue to be shed after symptoms have subsided and shedding can still be detected many weeks after infection.[18]

Vomiting, in particular, transmits infection effectively and appears to allow airborne transmission. In one incident, a person who vomited spread infection across a restaurant, suggesting that many unexplained cases of food poisoning may have their source in vomit.[19] In December 1998, 126 people were dining at six tables; one person vomited onto the floor. Staff quickly cleaned up, and people continued eating. Three days later others started falling ill; 52 people reported a range of symptoms, from fever and nausea to vomiting and diarrhea. The cause was not immediately identified. Researchers plotted the seating arrangement: more than 90% of the people at the same table as the sick person later reported becoming ill. There was a direct correlation between the risk of infection of people at other tables and how close they were to the sick person. More than 70% of the diners at an adjacent table fell ill; at a table on the other side of the restaurant, the infection rate was still 25%. The outbreak was attributed to a Norwalk-like virus (norovirus). Other cases of transmission by vomit were later identified.[20]

In one outbreak at an international scout jamboree in the Netherlands, each person with gastroenteritis infected an average of 14 people before increased hygiene measures were put in place. Even after these new measures were enacted, an ill person still infected an average of 2.1 other people.[21] A US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) study of 11 outbreaks in New York State lists the suspected mode of transmission as person-to-person in seven outbreaks, foodborne in two, waterborne in one, and one unknown. The source of waterborne outbreaks may include water from municipal supplies, wells, recreational lakes, swimming pools, and ice machines.[22]

Shellfish and salad ingredients are the foods most often implicated in norovirus outbreaks. Ingestion of shellfish that has not been sufficiently heated – under 75 °C (167 °F) – poses a high risk for norovirus infection.[23][24] Foods other than shellfish may be contaminated by infected food handlers.[25] Many norovirus outbreaks have been traced to food that was handled by only one infected person.[26]

Between March and August 2017, in Quebec, Canada, there was an outbreak of norovirus that sickened more than 700 people. According to an investigation by Canada's CFIA Food Control Agency, the culprit was frozen raspberries imported from Harbin Gaotai Food Co Ltd, a Chinese supplier, and then Canadian authorities issued a recall on raspberries products from Harbin Gaotai.[27]

Classification

Noroviruses (NoV) are a genetically diverse group of single-stranded positive-sense RNA, non-enveloped viruses belonging to the family Caliciviridae.[28][29] According to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses, the genus Norovirus has one species, which is called Norwalk virus.[28]

Noroviruses can genetically be classified into at least seven different genogroups (GI, GII, GIII, GIV, GV, GVI, and GVII), which can be further divided into different genetic clusters or genotypes.[30]

Noroviruses commonly isolated in cases of acute gastroenteritis belong to two genogroups: genogroup I (GI) includes Norwalk virus, Desert Shield virus and Southampton virus; and II (GII), which includes Bristol virus, Lordsdale virus, Toronto virus, Mexico virus, Hawaii virus and Snow Mountain virus.[29]

Most noroviruses that infect humans belong to genogroups GI and GII.[31] Noroviruses from genogroup II, genotype 4 (abbreviated as GII.4) account for the majority of adult outbreaks of gastroenteritis and often sweep across the globe.[32]

Recent examples include US95/96-US strain, associated with global outbreaks in the mid- to late-1990s; Farmington Hills virus associated with outbreaks in Europe and the United States in 2002 and in 2004; and Hunter virus which was associated with outbreaks in Europe, Japan and Australasia. In 2006, there was another large increase in NoV infection around the globe.[33] Reports have shown a link between the expression of human histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) and the susceptibility to norovirus infection. Studies have suggested the capsid of noroviruses may have evolved from selective pressure of human HBGAs.[34] HBGAs are not however the receptor or facilitator of norovirus infection. In fact, co-factors such as bile salts may facilitate the infection, making it more intense when introduced during or after the initial infection of the host tissue.[35] Bile salts are produced by the liver in response to eating fatty foods, and they help with the absorption of consumed lipids. It is not yet clear as to at what specific point in the Norovirus replication cycle bile salts facilitate infection: penetration, uncoating, or maintaining capsid stability.[35]

The protein MDA-5 may be the primary immune sensor that detects the presence of noroviruses in the body.[36] Some people have common variations of the MDA-5 gene that could make them more susceptible to norovirus infection.[37]

Structure

X-ray crystallographic structure of the Norwalk virus capsid

Viruses in Norovirus are non-enveloped, with icosahedral geometries. Capsid diameters vary widely, from 23 to 40 nm in diameter. The larger capsids (38–40 nm) exhibit T=3 symmetry and are composed of 180 VP1 proteins. Small capsids (23 nm) show T=1 symmetry, and are composed of 60 VP1 proteins.[38] The virus particles demonstrate an amorphous surface structure when visualized using electron microscopy.[39]

Genome

Noroviruses contain a linear, non-segmented,[38] positive-sense RNA genome of approximately 7.5 kilobases, encoding a large polyprotein which is cleaved into six smaller non-structural proteins (NS1/2 to NS7)[40] by the viral 3C-like protease (NS6), a major structural protein (VP1) of about 58~60 kDa and a minor capsid protein (VP2).[41]

The most variable region of the viral capsid is the P2 domain, which contains antigen-presenting sites and carbohydrate-receptor binding regions.[42][43][44][45][46]

Evolution

Groups 1, 2, 3, and 4 last shared a common ancestor in AD 867.[47] The group 2 and group 4 viruses last shared a common ancestor in approximately AD 1443 (95% highest posterior density 1336–1542 AD).[48] Several estimates of the evolution rate have been made varying from 8.98 × 10−3 to 2.03 × 10−3 substitutions per site per year.

The estimated mutation rate (1.21×10−2 to 1.41 ×10−2 substitutions per site per year) in this virus is high even compared with other RNA viruses.[49]

In addition, a recombination hotspot exists at the ORF1-ORF2 (VP1) junction.[50]

Replication cycle

Viral replication is cytoplasmic. Entry into the host cell is achieved by attachment to host receptors, which mediates endocytosis. Positive-stranded RNA virus transcription is the method of replication. Translation takes place by leaky scanning and RNA termination-reinitiation. Humans and other mammals serve as the natural host. Transmission routes are fecal-oral and contamination.[38]

Pathophysiology

When a person becomes infected with norovirus, the virus replicates within the small intestine. The principal symptom is acute gastroenteritis, characterized by nausea, forceful vomiting, watery diarrhea, and abdominal pain, that develops between 12 and 48 hours after exposure, and lasts for 24–72 hours.[51] Sometimes there is loss of taste, general lethargy, weakness, muscle aches, headache, cough, and/or low-grade fever. The disease is usually self-limiting.

Severe illness is rare; although people are frequently treated at the emergency ward, they are rarely admitted to the hospital. The number of deaths from norovirus in the United States is estimated to be around 570–800[52] each year, with most of these occurring in the very young, the elderly, and persons with weakened immune systems. Symptoms may become life-threatening in these groups if dehydration or electrolyte imbalance is ignored or not treated.[53]

Diagnosis

Specific diagnosis of norovirus is routinely made by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays or quantitative PCR assays, which give results within a few hours. These assays are very sensitive and can detect as few as 10 virus particles.[54] Tests such as ELISA that use antibodies against a mixture of norovirus strains are available commercially, but lack specificity and sensitivity.[55]

Prevention

After infection, immunity to the same strain of the virus – the genotype – protects against reinfection for between 6 months to 2 years.[56] This immunity does not fully protect against infection with the other diverse genotypes of the virus.[56]

In Canada, norovirus is a notifiable disease.[57] In both the US and the UK it is not notifiable.[58][59]

Hand washing and disinfectants

Hand washing with soap and water is an effective method for reducing the transmission of norovirus pathogens. Alcohol rubs (≥62% isopropyl alcohol) may be used as an adjunct, but are less effective than hand-washing, as norovirus lacks a lipid viral envelope.[60] Surfaces where norovirus particles may be present can be sanitised with a solution of 1.5% to 7.5% of household bleach in water, or other disinfectants effective against norovirus.[51][61][62]

Health care facilities

In health-care environments, the prevention of nosocomial infections involves routine and terminal cleaning. Nonflammable alcohol vapor in CO2 systems is used in health care environments where medical electronics would be adversely affected by aerosolized chlorine or other caustic compounds.[63]

In 2011, the CDC published a clinical practice guideline addressing strategies for the prevention and control of norovirus gastroenteritis outbreaks in health-care settings.[64][65] Based on a systematic review of published scientific studies, the guideline presents 51 specific evidence-based recommendations, which were organized into 12 categories: 1) patient cohorting and isolation precautions, 2) hand hygiene, 3) patient transfer and ward closure, 4) food handlers in healthcare, 5) diagnostics, 6) personal protective equipment, 7) environmental cleaning, 8) staff leave and policy, 9) visitors, 10) education, 11) active case-finding, and 12) communication and notification. The guideline also identifies eight high-priority recommendations and suggests several areas in need of future research.

Vaccine trials

LigoCyte announced in 2007 that it was working on a vaccine and had started phase 1 trials.[66] The company has since been taken over by Takeda Pharmaceutical Company.[67] As of 2019, a bivalent (NoV GI.1/GII.4) intramuscular vaccine had completed phase 1 trials.[68][69] In 2020 the phase 2b trials were finished.[70][71] The vaccine relies on using a virus-like particle that is made of the norovirus capsid proteins in order to mimic the external structure of the virus. Since there is no RNA in this particle, it is incapable of reproducing and cannot cause an infection.[66]

Persistence

The norovirus can survive for long periods outside a human host depending on the surface and temperature conditions: it can survive for weeks on hard and soft surfaces,[72] and it can survive for months, maybe even years in contaminated still water.[73] A 2006 study found the virus remained on surfaces used for food preparation seven days after contamination.[74]

Detection in food

Routine protocols to detect norovirus in clams and oysters by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction are being employed by governmental laboratories such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the US.[75]

Treatment

There is no specific medicine to treat people with norovirus illness. Norovirus infection cannot be treated with antibiotics because it is a virus. Treatments aim to avoid complications by measures such as the management of dehydration caused by fluid loss in vomiting and diarrhea,[5] and to mitigate symptoms using antiemetics and antidiarrheals.[76]

Epidemiology

Annual Trend in Reports of Norovirus Infection in England and Wales (2000–2011). Source: HPA
Laboratory reports of norovirus infections in England and Wales 2000–2012. Source: HPA, NB Testing methods changed in 2007[77]

Norovirus causes about 18% of all cases of acute gastroenteritis worldwide. It is relatively common in developed countries and in low-mortality developing countries (20% and 19% respectively) compared to high-mortality developing countries (14%). Proportionately it causes more illness in people in the community or in hospital outpatients (24% and 20% respectively) as compared with hospital inpatients (17%) in whom other causes are more common.[78]

Age and emergence of new norovirus strains do not appear to affect the proportion of gastroenteritis attributable to norovirus.[78]

Norovirus is a common cause of epidemics of gastroenteritis on cruise ships. The CDC through its Vessel Sanitation Program records and investigates outbreaks of gastrointestinal illness—mostly caused by norovirus—on cruise ships with both a US and foreign itinerary;[79] there were 12 in 2015, and 10 from 1 January to 9 May 2016. An outbreak may affect over 25% of passengers, and a smaller proportion of crew members.[80]

Human genetics

Epidemiological studies have shown that individuals with different ABO(H) (histo-blood group) phenotypes are infected with NoV strains in a genotype-specific manner.[81][82] GII.4 includes global epidemic strains and binds to more histo-blood group antigens than other genogroups.[81] FUT2 fucosyltransferase transfers a fucose sugar to the end of the ABO(H) precursor in gastrointestinal cells and saliva glands. The ABH-antigen produced is thought to act as a receptor for human norovirus: A non-functional fucosyltransferase FUT2 provides high protection from the most common norovirus strain, GII.4.[83]

Homozygous carriers of any nonsense mutation in the FUT2 gene are called non-secretors, as no ABH-antigen is produced. Approximately 20% of Caucasians are non-secretors due to G428A and C571T nonsense mutations in FUT2 and therefore have strong – although not absolute – protection from the norovirus GII.4.[84] Non-secretors can still produce ABH antigens in erythrocytes, as the precursor is formed by FUT1.[81] Some norovirus genotypes (GI.3) can infect non-secretors.[85]

History

The norovirus was originally named the "Norwalk agent" after Norwalk, Ohio, in the United States, where an outbreak of acute gastroenteritis occurred among children at Bronson Elementary School in November 1968 (although an outbreak had already been discovered in 1936 in Roskilde, Denmark, where it is commonly known as "Roskilde syge" or "Roskilde illness"). In 1972, electron microscopy on stored human stool samples identified a virus, which was given the name "Norwalk virus". Numerous outbreaks with similar symptoms have been reported since. The cloning and sequencing of the Norwalk virus genome showed that these viruses have a genomic organization consistent with viruses belonging to the family Caliciviridae.[86] The name "norovirus" (Norovirus for the genus) was approved by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) in 2002.[87] In 2011, however, a press release and a newsletter[88] were published by ICTV, which strongly encouraged the media, national health authorities and the scientific community to use the virus name Norwalk virus, rather than the genus name Norovirus, when referring to outbreaks of the disease. This was also a public response by ICTV to the request from an individual in Japan to rename the Norovirus genus because of the possibility of negative associations for people in Japan and elsewhere who have the family name "Noro". Before this position of ICTV was made public, ICTV consulted widely with members of the Caliciviridae Study Group and carefully discussed the case.

In addition to "Norwalk agent" and "Norwalk virus", the virus has also been called "Norwalk-like virus", "small, round-structured viruses" (SRSVs), Spencer flu and "Snow Mountain virus".[89] Common names of the illness caused by noroviruses still in use include "Roskilde illness", "winter vomiting disease",[90] "winter vomiting bug",[91][92] "viral gastroenteritis", and "acute nonbacterial gastroenteritis".[53]

See also

References

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Norwalk virus: Brief Summary ( англиски )

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Norovirus, sometimes referred to as the winter vomiting disease, is the most common cause of gastroenteritis. Infection is characterized by non-bloody diarrhea, vomiting, and stomach pain. Fever or headaches may also occur. Symptoms usually develop 12 to 48 hours after being exposed, and recovery typically occurs within one to three days. Complications are uncommon, but may include dehydration, especially in the young, the old, and those with other health problems.

The virus is usually spread by the fecal–oral route. This may be through contaminated food or water or person-to-person contact. It may also spread via contaminated surfaces or through air from the vomit of an infected person. Risk factors include unsanitary food preparation and sharing close quarters. Diagnosis is generally based on symptoms. Confirmatory testing is not usually available but may be performed by public health agencies during outbreaks.

Prevention involves proper hand washing and disinfection of contaminated surfaces. There is no vaccine or specific treatment for norovirus. Management involves supportive care such as drinking sufficient fluids or intravenous fluids. Oral rehydration solutions are the preferred fluids to drink, although other drinks without caffeine or alcohol can help. Alcohol-based hand sanitizers are not effective against the norovirus, according to the NHS information page on the subject; this is due to norovirus being a non-enveloped virus.

Norovirus results in about 685 million cases of disease and 200,000 deaths globally a year. It is common both in the developed and developing world. Those under the age of five are most often affected, and in this group it results in about 50,000 deaths in the developing world. Norovirus infections occur more commonly during winter months. It often occurs in outbreaks, especially among those living in close quarters. In the United States, it is the cause of about half of all foodborne disease outbreaks. The virus is named after the city of Norwalk, Ohio, US where an outbreak occurred in 1968.

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Virus de Norwalk ( француски )

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Le virus de Norwalk est le virus type du genre Norovirus de la famille Caliciviridae. Le nom vient de la ville de Norwalk dans l'Ohio où son atteinte a été décrite.

Le virus

Classification

Historiquement, les norovirus ont été identifiés par microscopie électronique, et baptisés selon le lieu géographique d'identification, par exemple : Norwalk dans l'Ohio, Hawaii, Southampton, Bristol, etc. Depuis les techniques de séquençage du génome, à partir de 1993, un nouveau système de classification numérique est adopté[1].

Cette classification se base sur des génogroupes numérotés en chiffres romains, subdivisé en génotypes en chiffres arabes. Par exemple pour les norovirus du génogroupe II, le virus de Lordsdale qui en fait partie est un membre du génotype 4, et est donc classifié comme norovirus GII.4.

Il existe cinq génogroupes différents (GI, GII, GIII, GIV, et GV), dont le génogroupe II, le génogroupe humain le plus répandu, contient actuellement 17 génotypes. Les génogroupes I, II et IV infectent des humains, tandis que le génogroupe III est associé aux infections de bovin et le génogroupe V a été isolé chez les souris.

Structure

Les Norovirus contiennent un génome positif d'ARN d'approximativement 7,5 kb, codant une protéine structurale importante (VP1) d'environ 60 kDa et une protéine mineure (VP2) servant de capside. Les particules virales de 27-35 nm ont une densité de 1,39-1,40 g/ml en CsCl. Elles n'ont pas d'enveloppe.

Les norovirus ne peuvent actuellement être mis en culture in vitro. Ils se multiplient dans les entérocytes de l'intestin grêle. Ils résistent au froid, et à la chaleur jusqu'à à 60°, à l'alcool et aux détergents classiques[2].

Pouvoir pathogène

Les norovirus (précédemment appelés Norwalk virus et Norwalk-like virus) provoquent une gastroentérite (gastroentérite virale, à norovirus, ou infection à norovirus). Les virus GII.4 expliquent la majorité des manifestations de gastro-entérite chez l'adulte, de répartition mondiale. Ils représentent la principale cause de ce qu'on appelle, dans le langage populaire la « grippe intestinale » ou « grippe d'estomac » en anglais.

Épidémiologie

Bien que la gastro-entérite virale soit provoquée par un certain nombre de virus, on estime que les virus de Norwalk sont responsables aux États-Unis d'environ un tiers des cas (hors les enfants de 6 à 24 mois).

Lors d'une surveillance de deux ans (d'octobre 2011 à janvier 2013) pour l'infection au norovirus dans le Minnesota parmi les appelants d'un centre d'assistance téléphonique pour la surveillance des maladies d'origine alimentaire, parmi les plaintes qui ont signalé des diarrhées ou des vomissements, 241 plaignants ont été testés avec 127 (52,7%) positifs pour le norovirus. Le norovirus est la principale cause de maladies d'origine alimentaire aux États-Unis[3].

Les études par PCR semblent montrer une prévalence supérieure avec une responsabilité du virus dans plus de 85 % des gastro-entérites non bactériennes dans les pays occidentaux[2], en dehors du jeune enfant.

La maladie est plus fréquente chez les adultes et les enfants plus âgés que chez les jeunes enfants.

Typiquement, elle survient de manière épidémique, durant une à deux semaines au sein de communautés plus ou moins grandes[2].

Les aliments semblent peu impliqués dans la contagion, qui serait plutôt interpersonnelle. À titre d'exemple, une étude approfondie faite en Suisse[4] a conclu qu'en Europe, les norovirus se diffusent surtout par contact direct de personne à personne et non via les aliments. De 1994 à 2006, en Suisse, les aliments et boissons n’ont été impliqués avec certitude que dans cinq foyers de toxi-infections, probablement via l'eau de boisson (mais on diagnostiquait mal les norovirus avant 1999, et antérieurement, les aliments ont été suspectés dans quelques cas)[5]. Des huîtres crues et des plats froids (préparés par un traiteur) ont été à l'origine d'épidémies en Suisse, selon l'Office fédéral de la santé publique[6].

Mode de transmission

La gastroentérite de Norwalk est transmise principalement par voie féco-orale, d'origine hydrique ou alimentaire (eau ou aliments souillés, pouvant inclure l'eau des approvisionnements municipaux, des puits, des lacs et des piscines), ainsi que la contamination par gouttelettes infectantes émises lors de vomissements[7].

Les aliments comprenant des mollusques, des crustacés ou de la salade sont les aliments les plus souvent impliqués dans des manifestations du Norwalk. L'ingestion des palourdes et des huîtres crues ou insuffisamment cuites à la vapeur pose un risque infectieux pour les zones où le virus est présent.

Selon un article récemment publié par la Société américaine de microbiologie, la capside du virus peut se lier aux cellules intestinales du chien et ce dernier peut parfois aussi être infecté, comme le montrent des tests immunologiques (il pourrait alors être suspecté de transmettre le norovirus à son maître ou à son entourage). Mais, malgré la sensibilité apparente du chien, cette étude n'a pas trouvé de norovirus dans les échantillons de selles canines, pas même en cas de diarrhée, et n'en a trouvé que dans les échantillons sériques de seulement « environ un septième des 325 chiens testés »[8]. Le rôle écoépidémiologique potentiel du chien doit être approfondi, mais il est a priori secondaire ou peu important (quelques-unes des épidémies les plus étudiées sont survenues dans un navire de croisière et dans des hôpitaux où aucun chien n'était directement impliqué), rappelle l'ASM qui invite néanmoins à prendre des précautions avec les chiens ayant des diarrhées[8].

Nature de la maladie

La maladie est caractérisée par des nausées, une gêne à la déglutition, une diarrhée et des douleurs abdominales. La diarrhée est typiquement non sanglante et peu abondante[2]. Des maux de tête et de la fièvre peuvent aussi se produire. Basée sur des études chez des volontaires, la dose infectieuse a été estimée dans la gamme de 10-100 particules de virus.

Diagnostic

Le diagnostic spécifique du norovirus est par habitude fait par des analyses conventionnelles RT-PCR (Reverse transcriptase - Réaction en chaîne par polymérase) qui sont de plus en plus remplacées par les analyses en temps réel de PCR, ces dernières donnant des résultats en quelques heures. Les analyses de type ELISA basées sur des anticorps contre un cocktail de différentes particules virales manquent de spécificité et de sensibilité.

Évolution & Traitement

Évolution

La gastro-entérite due au norovirus se développe habituellement 24 à 48 heures après l'ingestion de nourritures ou eaux souillées, ou de contact avec des personnes contaminées. Elle dure pendant 24 à 60 heures. Les formes graves où l'hospitalisation est nécessaire restent heureusement très rares.

Traitement

Il se base sur une bonne réhydratation, un antidiarrhéique et un antiémétique en cas de nausées ou de vomissements.

La suramine pourrait être efficace, in vitro [9] Le nitazoxanide est efficace in vivo contre la gastro-entérite à norovirus et à rotavirus[10]

Notes et références

  1. (en) R.I. Glass, « Norovirus Gastroenteritis », The New England Journal of Medicine,‎ 29 octobre 2009, p. 1776-1785.
  2. a b c et d Dolin R, Noroviruses — Challenges to control, N Eng J Med, 2007;357:1072-1073
  3. Saupe AA, Kaehler D, Cebelinski EA, Nefzger B, Hall AJ, Smith KE. Norovirus surveillance among callers to foodborne illness complaint hotline, Minnesota, USA, 2011–2013. Emerg Infect Dis [Internet]. 2013 Aug [2013-07-23]. https://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1908.130462
  4. Fretz, R., Svoboda, P., Schorr, D., Tanner, M. and Baumgartner, A.: Risk factors for infections with Norovirus gastrointestinal illness in Switzerland. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 24,256-261 (2005).
  5. Lüthi, T.M.: Ermittlung eines möglichen viralen Ursprungs gastrointestinaler Gruppenerkrankungen durch die Kombination klinischer, bakteriologischer und epidemiologischer Kriterien. Travaux de chimie alimentaire et d’hygiène 89, 196-218 (1998).
  6. http://www.bag.admin.ch/dokumentation/publikationen/01435/04412/index.html?lang=fr&download=M3wBPgDB/8ull6Du36WcnojN14in3qSbnpWZZG2dnE6p1rJgsYfhyt3NhqbdqIV+bay9bKbXrZ6lhuDZz8mMps2go6fo Source
  7. M. Rottman, « Les nouvelles infections liées à l'alimentation », La Revue du Praticien, vol. 53, no 10,‎ 15 mai 2003, p. 1055-1062
  8. a et b Communiqué de l'ASM : Can Humans Get Norovirus From Their Dogs?, et lien vers étude complète
  9. Eloise Mastrangelo, Stefania Mazzitelli, Jacopo Fabbri et Jacques Rohayem, « Delivery of suramin as an antiviral agent through liposomal systems », ChemMedChem, vol. 9, no 5,‎ mai 2014, p. 933–939 (ISSN , PMID , DOI , lire en ligne, consulté le 10 avril 2020)
  10. Jean-François Rossignol, « Nitazoxanide: a first-in-class broad-spectrum antiviral agent », Antiviral Research, vol. 110,‎ octobre 2014, p. 94–103 (ISSN , PMID , PMCID , DOI , lire en ligne, consulté le 12 juin 2020)

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Virus de Norwalk: Brief Summary ( француски )

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Le virus de Norwalk est le virus type du genre Norovirus de la famille Caliciviridae. Le nom vient de la ville de Norwalk dans l'Ohio où son atteinte a été décrite.

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Virus di Norwalk ( италијански )

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Il norovirus, a volte indicato come virus del vomito invernale, è la causa più comune di gastroenterite[1][2]. L'infezione è caratterizzata da diarrea non sanguinante, vomito e dolore addominale accompagnati anche da febbre o mal di testa[3][4]. I sintomi di solito si sviluppano in un lasso di tempo che va da 12 a 48 ore dopo essere stati esposti al contagio e il recupero si verifica in genere entro 1-3 giorni[3] . Le complicazioni sono rare, ma possono comprendere la disidratazione, specialmente nei giovani, negli anziani e in persone con altri problemi di salute[3].

Il virus si diffonde generalmente per via oro-fecale[4]. Ciò può avvenire attraverso cibo o acqua contaminati o per contatto da persona a persona[4]. Può anche diffondersi attraverso le superfici contaminate o a causa dell'aerosol creato dal vomito di una persona infetta[4]. I fattori di rischio comprendono la preparazione di alimenti in condizioni di scarsa igiene e dalla condivisione di alloggi vicini[4]. La diagnosi si basa generalmente sui sintomi[4]. I test di conferma non sono di solito disponibili ma possono essere eseguiti durante le epidemie da parte di agenzie di sanità pubblica[4].

La prevenzione prevede il corretto lavaggio delle mani e la disinfezione delle superfici contaminate[5]. I disinfettanti per le mani, a base di alcol, possono essere utilizzati in aggiunta, ma sono meno efficaci dell'accurato lavaggio delle mani con il sapone[5]. Non esiste un vaccino o un trattamento specifico per il norovirus[5][6]. Viene trattato con cure di supporto come bere liquidi, in quantità sufficienti, o con la somministrazione di liquidi per via endovenosa (fleboclisi)[6]. Le soluzioni di reidratazione orale sono i liquidi preferiti da bere, anche se altre bevande senza caffeina o alcol possono aiutare[6].

Il norovirus provoca circa 685 milioni di casi di malattia e 200.000 morti all'anno in tutto il mondo[1][7]. È comune sia nei paesi sviluppati che in quelli in via di sviluppo[4][8]. Sono più spesso colpiti i soggetti di età inferiore ai cinque anni e in questo gruppo provoca circa 50.000 morti nei paesi del terzo mondo[1]. Le infezioni da norovirus si verificano più comunemente durante i mesi invernali[1]. Si verificano spesso con focolai, specialmente tra coloro che vivono in spazi ristretti[4]. Negli Stati Uniti, è la causa di circa la metà di tutti i focolai di malattie di origine alimentare. Il virus prende il nome dalla città di Norwalk, in Ohio, dove si verificò un focolaio nel 1968[9][10].

 src=
Il norovirus visto al microscopio elettronico. la striscia bianca è = 50 nm

Segni e sintomi

L'infezione da norovirus è caratterizzata da nausea, vomito, diarrea acquosa, dolore addominale e, in alcuni casi, perdita del gusto. Una persona di solito sviluppa i sintomi di gastroenterite tra 12 - 48 ore dopo essere stata esposta al virus[11]. Possono verificarsi letargia generale, debolezza, dolori muscolari, mal di testa e febbri molto basse. Dalla malattia si guarisce, di solito, spontaneamente e le complicanze gravi sono molto rare. Sebbene contrarre il norovirus possa essere spiacevole, di solito non è pericoloso e la maggior parte di coloro che ne sono colpiti si riprende completamente entro due o tre giorni[12].

Il norovirus può generare un'infezione di lunga durata nelle persone immunocompromesse, come quelle con Immunodeficienza comune variabile o con un sistema immunitario soppresso dopo il trapianto di organi[13]. Queste infezioni possono essere con o senza sintomi[13]. Nei casi più gravi, le infezioni persistenti possono portare a enteropatia associata a norovirus, atrofia dei villi intestinali e malassorbimento[13].

Virologia

Trasmissione

I norovirus sono trasmessi direttamente da persona a persona (62–84% di tutti i focolai segnalati)[14] e indirettamente attraverso acqua e cibo contaminati. Sono estremamente contagiosi e meno di venti particelle di virus possono causare un'infezione[15] (alcune ricerche suggeriscono che ne basterebbero solo cinque)[16]. La trasmissione può avvenire tramite aerosol in caso di vomito di persone colpite dalla malattia e da quello creato mediante lo sciacquone del bagno in presenza di vomito o diarrea. L'infezione può essere generata dal consumo di cibo o dalla respirazione di aria nelle vicinanze di un episodio di vomito, anche dopo che le superfici sono state accuratamente ripulite[17]. I virus continuano a essere eliminati anche dopo che i sintomi si sono attenuati e il contagio può ancora essere rilevato molte settimane dopo l'infezione[18].

Il vomito, in particolare, trasmette efficacemente l'infezione e sembra consentire la trasmissione attraverso l'aria. In letteratura risulta il caso di una persona che ha vomitato e diffuso l'infezione in un ristorante, suggerendo così che molti casi inspiegabili di intossicazione alimentare possono avere origine dal vomito[19]. Nel dicembre 1998, 126 persone stavano cenando a sei tavoli diversi e una donna vomitò sul pavimento. Il personale ripulì rapidamente e le persone continuarono a mangiare. Tre giorni dopo alcuni iniziarono ad ammalarsi e 52 persone riportarono una serie di sintomi, da febbre e nausea a vomito e diarrea. La causa non venne immediatamente identificata. I ricercatori tracciarono la disposizione dei posti ai tavoli: oltre il 90% delle persone sedute allo stesso tavolo della donna malata si ammalarono a loro volta. C'era stata pertanto una correlazione diretta tra il rischio di infezione delle persone sedute negli altri tavoli e la loro vicinanza alla donna malata. Più del 70% dei commensali di un tavolo adiacente si ammalarono, mentre in un tavolo posto dall'altra parte della sala, il tasso di infezione rimase limitato al 25%. L'epidemia venne attribuita a un virus simile al Norwalk (norovirus). Altri casi di trasmissione per vomito sono stati successivamente identificati[20].

In un focolaio in un congresso internazionale nei Paesi Bassi, ogni persona con gastroenterite ha infettato una media di 14 persone prima che fossero messe in atto misure di igiene maggiori. Anche dopo l'adozione di queste nuove misure, una persona malata ha comunque infettato in media altre 2,1 persone[21]. Uno studio dei Centri statunitensi per il controllo e la prevenzione delle malattie (CDC) di 11 focolai registrati nello Stato di New York elenca la modalità sospetta di trasmissione come da persona a persona in sette casi, su base alimentare in due, su base acquosa in uno e un altro del tutto sconosciuto. La fonte dei focolai causati dall'acqua può comprendere acqua proveniente da forniture di acquedotto, pozzi, laghi adibiti a balneazione, piscine e macchine per il confezionamento del ghiaccio[22].

I crostacei e gli ingredienti dell'insalata sono gli alimenti più spesso coinvolti nelle epidemie di norovirus. L'ingestione di molluschi che non sono stati sufficientemente riscaldati, a meno di 75 °C (167 °F), presentano un alto rischio di infezione da norovirus[23][24]. Gli alimenti diversi dai molluschi possono essere contaminati da alimenti infetti[25]. Molti focolai di norovirus sono stati ricondotti al cibo preparato o manipolato da una persona infetta[26].

Classificazione

I norovirus (NoV) sono un gruppo geneticamente diversificato di RNA a senso positivo a singolo filamento, virus non avvolti appartenenti alla famiglia dei Caliciviridae[27][28]. Secondo il Comitato internazionale per la tassonomia dei virus, il genere Norovirus ha una specie, che si chiama virus Norwalk[27]. I sierotipi, i ceppi e gli isolati comprendono[29]:

  • Virus Norwalk
  • Virus delle Hawaii
  • Virus Snow Mountain
  • Virus del Messico
  • Virus Desert Shield
  • Virus di Southampton
  • Virus di Lordsdale
  • Wilkinson virus[30]

I norovirus comunemente isolati nei casi di gastroenterite acuta appartengono a due genogruppi: il genogruppo I (GI) comprende il virus Norwalk, il virus Desert Shield e il virus Southampton, e il II (GII), che comprende il virus Bristol, il virus Lordsdale, il virus Toronto, il virus Messico, il virus Hawaii e il virus Snow Mountain[28].

I norovirus possono essere geneticamente classificati in almeno sette diversi genogruppi (GI, GII, GIII, GIV, GV, GVI e GVII), che possono essere ulteriormente suddivisi in diversi gruppi genetici o genotipi[31]. Ad esempio, il genogruppo II, il genogruppo umano più diffuso, attualmente contiene 19 genotipi. I genogruppi I, II e IV infettano l'uomo, mentre il III infetta le specie bovine e il V è stato recentemente isolato nei topi[30].

La maggior parte dei norovirus che infettano l'uomo appartiene ai genogruppi GI e GII[32]. I norovirus del genogruppo II, il genotipo 4 (abbreviato in GII.4) rappresentano la maggior parte dei casi di gastroenterite negli adulti e spesso sono presenti in tutto il mondo[33]. Esempi recenti riguardano la varietà US95/96-US, associata a epidemie globali tra la metà e la fine degli anni 1990, il virus Farmington Hills associato a focolai in Europa e negli Stati Uniti nel 2002 e nel 2004 e il virus Hunter, associato a epidemie in Europa, Giappone e Australasia. Nel 2006, c'è stato un altro grande aumento dell'infezione da NoV in tutto il mondo[34]. I rapporti hanno mostrato un legame tra l'espressione degli antigeni del gruppo isto-sangue umano (HBGA) e la suscettibilità all'infezione da norovirus. Gli studi hanno suggerito che il capside dei norovirus potrebbe essersi evoluto dalla pressione selettiva degli HBGA umani[35].

Uno studio del 2008 suggerisce che la proteina MDA-5 potrebbe essere il principale sensore immunitario che rileva la presenza di norovirus nel corpo[36]. Alcune persone hanno variazioni comuni del gene MDA-5 che potrebbero renderle più suscettibili all'infezione da norovirus[37].

Uno studio del 2010 ha suggerito che una specifica versione genetica del norovirus (che non sarebbe distinguibile da altri tipi di virus usando test anticorpali virali standard) interagisce con una specifica mutazione nel gene ATG16L1 per aiutare a innescare la malattia sintomatica di Crohn nei topi che sono stati sottoposti a una sostanza chimica che provoca lesioni intestinali simili al processo nell'uomo. Esistono altri modi simili per far sì che tali malattie si verifichino in questo modo e questo studio in sé non dimostra che il norovirus causi la malattia di Crohn nell'uomo.

Struttura

 src=
Struttura cristallografica, ai raggi X, del capside del virus Norwalk

I norovirus sono non avvolti, con geometrie icosaedriche. I diametri dei capside variano ampiamente, da 23 a 40 nm. I capside più grandi (38–40 nm) presentano una simmetria T=3 e sono composti da 180 proteine VP1. I piccoli capside (23 nm) mostrano la simmetria T=1 e sono composti da 60 proteine VP1[38]. Le particelle virali mostrano una struttura superficiale amorfa quando visualizzate mediante microscopia elettronica[39].

Genoma

I norovirus contengono un genoma di RNA a polarità positiva lineare, non segmentato[38], di circa 7,5 kilobasi, codificante una grande poliproteina che viene suddivisa in sei proteine non strutturali più piccole (da NS1/2 a NS7)[40] dal virale 3C-simil proteasi (NS6), una proteina strutturale principale (VP1) di circa 58~60 kDa e una proteina capside minore (VP2)[41].

La regione più variabile del capside virale è il dominio P2, che contiene siti di presentazione dell'antigene e regioni di legame del recettore dei carboidrati[42][43][44][45][46].

Evoluzione

I gruppi 1, 2, 3 e 4 hanno condiviso un antenato comune nell'anno 867[47]. I virus del gruppo 2 e del gruppo 4 hanno condiviso un antenato comune nel 1443 circa (densità posteriore massima del 95% 1336-1542)[48]. Diverse stime del tasso di evoluzione sono state fatte variando da 8.98 × 10−3 to 2.03 × 10−3 sostituzioni per sito all'anno.

Il tasso di mutazione stimato (1.21×10−2 to 1.41×10−2 sostituzioni per sito per anno) in questo virus è più elevato se comparato con quello di altri virus RNA[49].

Inoltre, esiste un hotspot di ricombinazione sulla giunzione ORF1-ORF2 (VP1)[50].

Ciclo di replicazione

La replicazione virale è citoplasmatica. L'ingresso nella cellula ospite è raggiunto tramite l'attaccamento ai recettori ospiti, che media l'endocitosi. La trascrizione del virus RNA a filamento positivo è il metodo di replicazione. La trasmissione avviene tramite scansione e reinizializzazione della terminazione del RNA. Gli esseri umani e altri mammiferi servono da ospiti naturali. Le vie di trasmissione sono oro-fecali e per contaminazione[38].

Fisiopatologia

Quando una persona viene infettata dal norovirus, questo viene replicato nell'intestino tenue. Dopo circa uno o due giorni, possono comparire sintomi di infezione. Il sintomo principale è la gastroenterite acuta che si sviluppa tra le 12 e le 48 ore dopo l'esposizione al contagio e dura dalle 24 alle 72 ore[51]. La malattia, di solito, guarisce spontaneamente ed è caratterizzata da nausea, vomito intenso, diarrea acquosa e dolore addominale e, in alcuni casi, dalla perdita del gusto. Possono verificarsi letargia generale, debolezza, dolori muscolari, mal di testa, tosse e febbriciattola.

La malattia grave è rara. Sebbene le persone vengano frequentemente curate in reparti di emergenza, raramente vengono ricoverate in ospedale. Si stima che il numero di decessi per norovirus negli Stati Uniti sia di circa 570-800[52] ogni anno, con la maggior parte di questi episodi nei giovani, negli anziani e nelle persone con sistema immunitario indebolito. I sintomi possono diventare potenzialmente letali, in questi gruppi, se la disidratazione o lo squilibrio elettrolitico vengono ignorati o non trattati[53].

Diagnosi

La diagnosi specifica del norovirus viene regolarmente eseguita mediante test di reazione a catena della polimerasi (PCR) o test PCR quantitativi, che danno risultati entro poche ore. Questi test sono molto sensibili e possono rilevare fino a 10 particelle di virus[54].

Test come ELISA che usano anticorpi contro una miscela di ceppi di norovirus sono disponibili in commercio, ma mancano di specificità e sensibilità[55].

A causa della mancanza di una terapia specifica, gli esperti mettono in dubbio la necessità di costose diagnosi delle feci se la gastroenterite da norovirus è già stata rilevata nell'ambiente[56].

Prevenzione

Dopo l'infezione, l'immunità allo stesso ceppo del virus - il genotipo - protegge dalla reinfezione da 6 mesi a 2 anni[57]. Questa immunità non protegge completamente dalle infezioni da altri genotipi dello stesso virus[57].

In Canada, il norovirus è una malattia soggetta a denuncia[58] mentre negli Stati Uniti e nel Regno Unito non deve essere segnalata[59][60].

Lavaggio delle mani e disinfettanti

Il lavaggio delle mani, con acqua e sapone, è un metodo efficace per ridurre la trasmissione dei patogeni del norovirus. Strofinare le mani con alcol (≥62% di alcol isopropilico) può essere utile come seconda istanza, ma è meno efficace del lavaggio delle mani, poiché il norovirus manca di una custodia virale lipidica[61]. Le superfici in cui possono essere presenti particelle di norovirus possono essere disinfettate con una soluzione dall'1,5% al 7,5% di candeggina per uso domestico in acqua o altri disinfettanti efficaci contro il norovirus[51][62][63].

Strutture sanitarie

Nelle strutture sanitarie, la prevenzione delle infezioni nosocomiali comporta la pulizia ordinaria e straordinaria. Il vapore di alcol non infiammabile nei sistemi di CO2 viene utilizzato in ambienti sanitari in cui l'elettronica medica verrebbe influenzata negativamente dagli aerosol di cloro o da altri composti caustici[64].

Nel 2011, il CDC ha pubblicato una linea guida di pratica clinica che affronta le strategie da attuare per la prevenzione e il controllo delle epidemie di gastroenterite da norovirus in contesti sanitari[65][66]. Sulla base di una revisione sistematica di studi scientifici pubblicati, la linea guida presenta 51 raccomandazioni specifiche basate sull'evidenza, che sono state organizzate in 12 categorie:

  1. precauzioni di isolamento dei pazienti
  2. igiene delle mani
  3. trasferimento dei pazienti e chiusura del reparto
  4. gestione degli alimenti nel settore sanitario
  5. diagnostica,
  6. dispositivi di protezione individuale
  7. pulizia ambientale
  8. congedo e politica del personale
  9. visitatori
  10. istruzione
  11. ricerca di casi attivi
  12. comunicazione e notifica.

La linea guida identifica anche otto raccomandazioni ad alta priorità e suggerisce diverse aree che necessitano di ricerche future.

Studi sui vaccini

Nel 2007 LigoCyte ha annunciato che stava lavorando a un vaccino e aveva iniziato gli studi di fase 1[67]. Da allora la società è stata rilevata dalla Takeda Pharmaceutical Company[68]. Nel 2019 anche un vaccino intramuscolare bivalente (NoV GI.1/GII.4) aveva completato gli studi di fase 1[69][70]. Il vaccino si basa sull'utilizzo di una particella simile a un virus composta dalle proteine del capside del norovirus al fine di imitare la struttura esterna del virus. Dato che non c'è RNA in questa particella, non è in grado di riprodursi e non può causare un'infezione[67].

Persistenza

Il norovirus può sopravvivere per lunghi periodi al di fuori di un ospite umano a seconda della superficie e delle condizioni di temperatura: può sopravvivere per settimane su superfici dure e morbide[71], e per mesi, forse anche anni, in acque stagnanti contaminate[72]. Uno studio del 2006 ha scoperto che il virus è rimasto sulle superfici utilizzate per la preparazione degli alimenti sette giorni dopo la contaminazione[73].

Rilevazione negli alimenti

Protocolli di routine per rilevare il norovirus nelle vongole e nelle ostriche mediante reazione a catena della polimerasi a retrotrascrizione sono impiegati da laboratori governativi come Food and Drug Administration (FDA) negli Stati Uniti[74].

Trattamento

Non esiste una terapia specifica per trattare le persone con malattia da norovirus. L'infezione da norovirus non può essere trattata con antibiotici perché non è un'infezione batterica. I trattamenti mirano ad evitare complicazioni con misure come la gestione della disidratazione causata dalla perdita di liquidi attraverso il vomito e la diarrea[6], e per mitigare i sintomi usando antiemetici e antidiarroici[75].

Epidemiologia

 src=
Andamento annuale delle segnalazioni di infezione da Norovirus in Inghilterra e Galles (2000–2011). Fonte: HPA
 src=
Rapporti di laboratorio sulle infezioni da norovirus in Inghilterra e Galles 2000–2012. Fonte: HPA, NB I metodi di test sono cambiati nel 2007[76]

Il norovirus causa circa il 18% di tutti i casi di gastroenterite acuta in tutto il mondo. È relativamente comune nei paesi sviluppati e nei paesi in via di sviluppo a bassa mortalità (rispettivamente 20% e 19%) rispetto ai paesi in via di sviluppo ad alta mortalità (14%). Proporzionalmente provoca più malattie nelle persone presenti nelle comunità o nei pazienti ambulatoriali (rispettivamente 24% e 20%) rispetto ai pazienti ricoverati in ospedale (17%) per i quali altre cause sono più comuni[77].

L'età e l'emergere di nuovi ceppi di norovirus non sembrano influenzare la percentuale di gastroenterite attribuibile al norovirus[77].

Il norovirus è una causa comune di epidemie di gastroenterite sulle navi da crociera. Il CDC, attraverso il suo Programma di risanamento delle navi, registra e indaga le epidemie di malattie gastrointestinali - principalmente causate dal norovirus - su navi da crociera con un itinerario sia statunitense che estero[78]. Ne sono state riscontrate 12 nel 2015 e 10 dal 1º gennaio a 9 maggio del 2016. Un focolaio può interessare oltre il 25% dei passeggeri e una percentuale inferiore di membri dell'equipaggio[79].

Genetica umana

Studi epidemiologici hanno dimostrato che individui con diversi fenotipi ABO (H) (gruppo isto- sanguigno) sono infettati da ceppi NoV in modo specifico per genotipo[80][81]. Il GII.4 include ceppi epidemici globali e si lega a più antigeni del gruppo isto-sanguigno rispetto ad altri genogruppi[80]. La fucosil-transferasi FUT2 trasferisce uno zucchero fucosio alla fine del precursore ABO (H) nelle cellule gastrointestinali e nelle ghiandole salivari. Si ritiene che l'antigene ABH prodotto funga da recettore per il norovirus umano: una fucosiltransferasi FUT2 non funzionale fornisce un'alta protezione dal ceppo norovirus più comune, GII.4[82].

I portatori omozigoti di qualsiasi mutazione senza senso nel gene FUT2 sono chiamati non secretori, poiché non viene prodotto alcun antigene ABH. Circa il 20% dei caucasici è non-secretore a causa delle mutazioni senza senso di G428A e C571T in FUT2 e quindi ha una protezione forte, sebbene non assoluta, dal norovirus GII.4[83]. I non-secretori possono ancora produrre antigeni ABH negli eritrociti, poiché il precursore è formato da FUT1[80]. Alcuni genotipi di norovirus (GI.3) possono infettare i non-secretori[84].

Storia

Il norovirus era stato originariamente chiamato "agente Norwalk" da Norwalk, Ohio, negli Stati Uniti, dove si è verificato un focolaio di gastroenterite acuta tra i bambini della Bronson Elementary School nel novembre 1968 (sebbene un focolaio fosse già stato scoperto nel 1936 a Roskilde, in Danimarca, dove è comunemente noto come "Roskilde syge" o "Malattia di Roskilde"). Nel 1972, la microscopia elettronica su campioni di feci umane immagazzinate ha identificato un virus, a cui è stato dato il nome di "virus Norwalk". Da allora sono stati segnalati numerosi focolai con sintomi simili. La clonazione e il sequenziamento del genoma del virus Norwalk hanno dimostrato che questi virus hanno un'organizzazione genomica coerente con i virus appartenenti alla famiglia dei Caliciviridae[85]. Il nome "norovirus" è stato approvato dal Comitato internazionale per la tassonomia dei virus (ICTV) nel 2002[86]. Nel 2011, tuttavia, l'ICTV ha pubblicato un comunicato stampa e una newsletter[87], che ha fortemente incoraggiato i media, le autorità sanitarie nazionali e la comunità scientifica a utilizzare il nome virus Norwalk, piuttosto che il nome del genere Norovirus, quando si fa riferimento a focolai della malattia. Questa è stata anche una risposta pubblica, dall'ICTV, alla richiesta di un individuo in Giappone tendente a rinominare il genere Norovirus a causa della possibilità di associazioni negative per le persone, in Giappone e altrove, che hanno il cognome "Noro". Prima che questa posizione di ICTV fosse resa pubblica, l'ICTV si consultò ampiamente con i membri del gruppo di studio Caliciviridae e discusse attentamente il caso.

Oltre che "Norwalk agent" e "Norwalk virus", il virus è stato anche chiamato "Norwalk-simil virus", "piccolo virus a struttura circolare" (SRSVs), influenza Spencer e "Snow Mountain virus"[88]. Nomi comuni della malattia causata da norovirus ancora in uso comprendono "malattia di Roskilde", "malattia del vomito invernale"[89], "virus del vomito invernale"[90][91], "gastroenterite virale" e "gastroenterite acuta non batterica"[53]. Inoltre colloquialmente è noto come "influenza intestinale", ma questo in realtà è un nome ampio che si riferisce all'infiammazione gastrica causata da una serie di virus e batteri.

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Virus di Norwalk: Brief Summary ( италијански )

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Il norovirus, a volte indicato come virus del vomito invernale, è la causa più comune di gastroenterite. L'infezione è caratterizzata da diarrea non sanguinante, vomito e dolore addominale accompagnati anche da febbre o mal di testa. I sintomi di solito si sviluppano in un lasso di tempo che va da 12 a 48 ore dopo essere stati esposti al contagio e il recupero si verifica in genere entro 1-3 giorni . Le complicazioni sono rare, ma possono comprendere la disidratazione, specialmente nei giovani, negli anziani e in persone con altri problemi di salute.

Il virus si diffonde generalmente per via oro-fecale. Ciò può avvenire attraverso cibo o acqua contaminati o per contatto da persona a persona. Può anche diffondersi attraverso le superfici contaminate o a causa dell'aerosol creato dal vomito di una persona infetta. I fattori di rischio comprendono la preparazione di alimenti in condizioni di scarsa igiene e dalla condivisione di alloggi vicini. La diagnosi si basa generalmente sui sintomi. I test di conferma non sono di solito disponibili ma possono essere eseguiti durante le epidemie da parte di agenzie di sanità pubblica.

La prevenzione prevede il corretto lavaggio delle mani e la disinfezione delle superfici contaminate. I disinfettanti per le mani, a base di alcol, possono essere utilizzati in aggiunta, ma sono meno efficaci dell'accurato lavaggio delle mani con il sapone. Non esiste un vaccino o un trattamento specifico per il norovirus. Viene trattato con cure di supporto come bere liquidi, in quantità sufficienti, o con la somministrazione di liquidi per via endovenosa (fleboclisi). Le soluzioni di reidratazione orale sono i liquidi preferiti da bere, anche se altre bevande senza caffeina o alcol possono aiutare.

Il norovirus provoca circa 685 milioni di casi di malattia e 200.000 morti all'anno in tutto il mondo. È comune sia nei paesi sviluppati che in quelli in via di sviluppo. Sono più spesso colpiti i soggetti di età inferiore ai cinque anni e in questo gruppo provoca circa 50.000 morti nei paesi del terzo mondo. Le infezioni da norovirus si verificano più comunemente durante i mesi invernali. Si verificano spesso con focolai, specialmente tra coloro che vivono in spazi ristretti. Negli Stati Uniti, è la causa di circa la metà di tutti i focolai di malattie di origine alimentare. Il virus prende il nome dalla città di Norwalk, in Ohio, dove si verificò un focolaio nel 1968.

 src= Il norovirus visto al microscopio elettronico. la striscia bianca è = 50 nm
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Norwalk virüsü ( турски )

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Norwalk virüsü, bağırsak enfeksiyonuna neden olan bir virüstür. 27-40 nm boyundadır, genetik materyali RNA'dan oluşur.

Yiyecekler aracılığıya vücuda girerek, şiddetli kusma, ishal yapar. Bulaşıcıdır, 4 yaş altındaki bebeklerin bu enfeksiyona yakalanma olaslıkları yüksektir. Temizlik kurallarına uyularak koruma sağlanır.

Stub icon Virüsler ile ilgili bu madde bir taslaktır. Madde içeriğini geliştirerek Vikipedi'ye katkıda bulunabilirsiniz.
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Вірус Норуолк ( украински )

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Історія

Вид із моменту реєстрації називають Norwalk virus за місцевістю Норуолк (штат Огайо), де у листопаді 1968 року був зареєстрований спалах гострого гастроентериту серед учнів однієї із початкових шкіл. У 1972 році при проведенні імунноелектронної мікроскопії заморожених тоді проб фекалій було виявлено вірус, який отримав назву Норуолк. Із того часу були зареєстровані численні випадки захворювання із подібними симптомами. Клонування і секвенування генома вірусів Норуолк показало, що вони мають таку ж геномну організацію, як і у вірусів родини Caliciviridae[14]. Назву роду Norovirus було затверджено Міжнародним комітетом із таксономії вірусів у 2002 році[15].

Захворювання, яке спричинюють віруси Норуолк, відносять до вірусних гастроентеритів. Переважають вони в осінньо-зимовий період[16]. Вірусні гастроентерити відомі в народі під хибною назвою «шлунковий грип».

Для позначення вірусу використовували інші назви: SRSVs (дрібні круглі віруси), вірус типу Саппоро (Sapporo) і типу Снігових гір (Snow Mountain)[17].

Клінічні ознаки

Інкубаційний період триває від 10 до 72 годин, у більшості випадках прояви з'являються через 1-2 доби від зараження. Це, як правило самовиліковне захворювання, ознаками якого є нудота [18], блювання, діарея, а також біль у черевній порожнині, у деяких випадках втрата смакових відчуттів. У дітей у клінічному перебігу домінує блювання, у дорослих — діарея. Може спостерігатися сонливість, в'ялість, міалгії і невисока гарячка. Нездужання може тривати кілька днів і, якщо ігнорувати і не боротися із наслідком хвороби — зневодненням організму, то це може призвести до смерті. До груп ризику належать діти, люди похилого віку і пацієнти, що мають ослаблену імунну систему. Норовірус, потрапивши до організму людини, реплікується у тонкому кишківнику.

Діагностика

Зазвичай норовірус діагностують за допомогою полімеразної ланцюгової реакції (ПЛР) у реальному часі, що дає результат уже через кілька годин. Дані аналізів достатньо чутливі й можуть визначати концентрацію до 10 вірусних часток[19].

Такі тести як імуноферментний аналіз (ІФА) із використанням антитіл проти різних штамів норовіруса доступні на комерційній основі, але вони мають недостатню точність і чутливість[20].

Наразі в діагностичному арсеналі є експрес-тест на основі імуногістохімічного методу, що дає можливість підтвердити наявність норуолк-вірусної хвооби вже за 10-15 хвилин.

Профілактика та інфекційний контроль

Миття рук залишається одним із найбільш ефективних засобів із метою попередження поширення норовіруса. Він може потрапити у повітря під час блювання хворим. Усі поверхні у місцях, де може бути норовірус, бажано продезинфікувати[21].

Із метою профілактики хвороби, яка може виникнути, у медичних закладах проводять ряд заходів, у тому числі, й щоденне вологе прибирання. Там, де розпилення хлоровмісних сполук негативно впливає на медичну техніку, застосовують NAV-CO2 системи[22].

Компанія Ligocyte займалася розробкою вакцини, але перша фаза клінічних випробувань закінчилася невдало[23].

Зараження через їжу

Віруси Норуолк передаються при прямому контакті з хворим або опосередковано через забруднені воду та їжу. У доповіді Центру контролю захворювань у США (CDC), об'єктами дослідження якого стали 11 спалахів у штаті Нью-Йорк, було зазначено, що у 7 спалахах спосіб передачі був від людини до людини, у 2 спалахах — харчового походження, 1 спалах — передача йшла через воду і причина ще одного невідома. Інфікована вода потрапляє в організм людини кількома шляхами — це може бути водопровідна вода, вода з колодязя, відкритих водойм, басейнів та вода з автоматів із кубиками льоду[24].

Морепродукти та інгредієнти салатів — їжа, яка найчастіше спричинює спалахи норуолк-вірусної хвороби. Уживання сирих або погано термічно оброблених молюсків та устриць також є великим ризиком інфікування цим вірусом. Інші продукти харчування можуть бути заражені від хворого під час приготування ним страв[25].

Захворюваність

У США за кількістю зареєстрованих звернень вірусний гастроентерит поступається тільки застуді. Хоча причиною даного захворювання можуть бути дуже багато різних вірусів, проте вважається, що близько 1/3 випадків збудником захворювання у немовлят від 6 до 24 місяців були віруси Норуолк. У розвинених країнах відсоток дітей, у яких є антитіла проти вірусу в ранньому віці, дуже високий. У США відсоток із часом поступово збільшується і досягає відмітки 50 % серед населення від 18 років. Але постінфекційний імунітет короткий і не запобігає повторному зараженню[26][27].

Клінічний перебіг хвороби і ускладнення

Вірус Норуолк спричинює гострий гастроентерит. Інкубаційний період триває від 24 до 48 годин частіше 33-36 годин. Захворювання триває 24-60 годин. Ускладнення спостерігають рідко. . За оцінками спеціалістів щороку в США близько 300 дітей помирають внаслідок цієї хвороби.

Виявлення у продуктах харчування

Стандартні дослідження щодо виявлення вірусу Норуолк у їстівних молюсках та устрицях за результатами полімеразної ланцюгової реакції (ПЛР) зі зворотною транскриптазою проводяться державними лабораторіями такими як FDA (комісія із контролю за ліками) у США. [28].

Класифікація

 src=
Фотографія часток віруса Норуолк у фекаліях, отримана за допомогою трансмісійного мікроскопа

Вірус Норуолк — немає зовнішньої оболонки, належить до родини Caliciviridae, геном яких представлений одноланцюговим РНК. Розрізняють кілька генетичних груп[29]. За таксономією вірусів рід норовірусів має один різновид — вірус Норуолк (Norwalk virus), скорочено «NV». Серотипи, штами та ізоляти включають:

  • вірус Пустелі Шилд (Desert Shield virus) [U04469] (Hu/NLV/DSV395/1990/SR)
  • вірус Лордсдейл (Lordsdale virus) [X86557] (Hu/NLV/LD/1993/UK)
  • вірус Мексико (Mexico virus)[U22498] (Hu/NLV/MX/1989/MX)
  • вірус Норуолк (Norwalk virus) [M87661] (Hu/NLV/NV/1968/US)
  • вірус Гавайї (Hawaii virus) [U07611] (Hu/NLV/HV/1971/US)
  • вірус Снігових гір (Snow Mountain virus)[L23831] (Hu/NLV/SMV/1976/US)
  • вірус Саут-хемптон (Southampton virus) [L07418] (Hu/NLV/SHV/1991/UK)

Норовіруси вкрай вірулентні та патогенні, вже 10 вірусних часток здатні спричинити хворобу.

Норовіруси розділяють на кілька геногруп (GI, GII, GIII, GIV і GV): геногрупа I (GI) включає вірус Норуолк, вірус Пустелі Шилд і вірус Саут-хемптон, геногрупа II (GII) — вірус Брістоль, вірус Лордсдейл, вірус Торонто, вірус Мексико, вірус Гавайї та вірус Снігових гір.

Геногрупи I, II та IV спричинюють хвороби у людини, а геногрупа ІІІ інфікує велику рогату худобу. Геногрупа V недавно була виявлена у мишей[30].

Норовіруси геногрупи II, генотип 4 ( GII4) є причиною більшості спалахів гастроентериту у дорослих . Недавні зразки містять US95/96-US-штам, який має відношення до глобальних спалахів середини і кінця 1990-х, вірус Фармінгтон Хіллс (Farmington Hills) асоціюється із спалахами у Європі та США у 2002 році, а вірус Хантер (Hunter virus) — зі спалахами у Європі, Японії, Австралії та Азії у 2004 році. У 2006 році спостерігалася чергова глобальна хвиля норовірусної інфекції[31]. У грудні 2007 року був зареєстрований спалах у заміському клубі на півночі Каліфорнії, де були інфіковані близько 80-100 осіб. Два нових варіанти GII.4 стали причиною близько 80 % цих асоційованих з вірусом Норуолк спалахів, які спричинили 2006a та 2006b. У звітах наголошується про зв'язок між групою крові та норовірусною інфекцією[32][33][34].

Науковці медичного факультету університету Вашингтона в Сент-Луїсі висловили думку про те, що білок MDA-5 може бути первинним імунним сенсором, який виявляє наявність вірусів Норуолк в організмі[35]. Деякі люди мають спільні варіації MDA-5-гена, що робить їх більш сприйнятливими до норовірусної інфекції[36].

Структура вірусу

Геном вірусу Норуолк — це одноланцюгова (+)РНК розміром приблизно 7,5 тис. нуклеотидів, які містять 3 відкриті рамки зчитування, кодуючі неструктурний поліпептид, який зазнає автопротеолізу з утворенням 5 активних білків, головний структурний білок (VP1) у межах 58~60 кДа і мінорний капсидний білок (VP2)[37]. При перегляді в електронному мікроскопі вірусні частки демонструють аморфну будову поверхні. Розмір вірусних часток — між 27—38 нм[38].

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Ця стаття потребує додаткових посилань на джерела для поліпшення її перевірності. Допоможіть покращити цю статтю, додавши посилання на надійні джерела! Матеріал без джерел може бути піддано сумніву та вилучено. (січень 2019)

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  31. Tu ET, Bull RA, Greening GE, Hewitt J, Lyon MJ, Marshall JA, McIver CJ, Rawlinson WD, White PA (2008). Epidemics of gastroenteritis during 2006 were associated with the spread of norovirus GII.4 variants 2006a and 2006b. Clin. Infect. Dis. 46 (3): 413–20. PMID 18177226. doi:10.1086/525259.
  32. Huang P, Farkas T, Marionneau S, Zhong W, Ruvoën-Clouet N, Morrow AL, Altaye M, Pickering LK, Newburg DS, LePendu J, Jiang X (2003). Noroviruses bind to human ABO, Lewis, and secretor histo-blood group antigens: identification of 4 distinct strain-specific patterns. J. Infect. Dis. 188 (1): 19–31. PMID 12825167. doi:10.1086/375742.
  33. Huang P, Farkas T, Zhong W, Tan M, Thornton S, Morrow AL, Jiang X (2005). Norovirus and histo-blood group antigens: demonstration of a wide spectrum of strain specificities and classification of two major binding groups among multiple binding patterns. J. Virol. 79 (11): 6714–22. PMID 15890909. doi:10.1128/JVI.79.11.6714-6722.2005.
  34. Rockx BH, Vennema H, Hoebe CJ, Duizer E, Koopmans MP (2005). Association of histo-blood group antigens and susceptibility to norovirus infections. J. Infect. Dis. 191 (5): 749–54. PMID 15688291. doi:10.1086/427779.
  35. McCartney SA, Thackray LB, Gitlin L, Gilfillan S, Virgin Iv HW, Colonna M (July 18 2008). MDA-5 recognition of a murine norovirus.. PLoS Pathog. PMID 18636103. Текст «PubMed — in process» проігноровано (довідка)
  36. Researchers Discover Primary Sensor That Detects Stomach Viruses Newswise, Retrieved on July 20, 2008.
  37. Clarke IN, Lambden PR (2000). Organization and expression of calicivirus genes. J. Infect. Dis. 181 Suppl 2: S309–16. PMID 10804143.
  38. Prasad BV, Crawford S, Lawton JA, Pesavento J, Hardy M, Estes MK (2001). Structural studies on gastroenteritis viruses. Novartis Found. Symp. 238: 26–37; discussion 37–46. PMID 11444031.
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Вирус Норуолк ( руски )

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Фотография частиц вируса Норуолк в фекалиях, полученная с помощью трансмиссионного микроскопа

Вирус Норуолк — вирус без внешней оболочки из семейства Caliciviridae, геном которых представлен одноцепочной РНК, различают несколько генетических групп[31]. Согласно Международному комитету по таксономии вирусов род норовирусов имеет одну разновидность — вирус Норуолк (Norwalk virus), сокращенно «NV». Серотипы, штаммы и изоляты включают:

  • вирус Пустыни Шилд (Desert Shield virus) [U04469] (Hu/NLV/DSV395/1990/SR)
  • вирус Лордсдейл (Lordsdale virus) [X86557] (Hu/NLV/LD/1993/UK)
  • вирус Мексико (Mexico virus)[U22498] (Hu/NLV/MX/1989/MX)
  • вирус Норуолк (Norwalk virus) [M87661] (Hu/NLV/NV/1968/US)
  • вирус Гавайи (Hawaii virus) [U07611] (Hu/NLV/HV/1971/US)
  • вирус Снежных гор (Snow Mountain virus)[L23831] (Hu/NLV/SMV/1976/US)
  • вирус Саут-хэмптон (Southampton virus) [L07418] (Hu/NLV/SHV/1991/UK).

Во всём мире вирусы Норуолк являются основной причиной острого гастроэнтерита, часто заболевание проявляется групповыми вспышками в учреждениях. Норовирусы крайне заразны, уже 10 вирусных частиц способны вызвать инфекцию. Заболевание передаётся через заражённую пищу или воду и от человека к человеку. Механизм передачи главным образом фекально-оральный, но есть вероятность заразиться и воздушно-капельным путём, когда возбудители попадают в воздух с капельками рвотных масс. Норовирусы подразделяют на 5 геногрупп: геногруппа I (GI) включает вирус Норволк, вирус Пустыни Шилд и вирус Саут-хэмптон, и группа II (GII) — вирус Бристоль, вирус Лордсдейл, вирус Торонто, вирус Мексико, вирус Гавайи и вирус Снежных гор.

Геногруппы подразделяются на разные кластеры или генотипы. Например, геногруппа II, наиболее превалирующая «человеческая» геногруппа, до настоящего времени содержит 19 генотипов. Геногруппы I, II и IV вызывают поражения у человека, а геногруппа III инфицирует рогатый скот. Геногруппа V недавно была обнаружена у мышей[32].

Норовирусы геногруппы II, генотип 4 (сокр. GII4) являются причиной большинства вспышек гастроэнтерита у взрослых и часто перемещаются по всей планете. Недавние образцы содержат US95/96-US-штамм, который имеет отношение к глобальным вспышкам середины и конца 90-х, вирус Фармингтон Хиллс (Farmington Hills) ассоциируется со вспышками в Европе и Соединённых Штатах в 2002 году, а вирус Хантер (Hunter virus) — со вспышками в Европе, Японии и Австралазии 2004 года. В 2006 году наблюдалась очередная мировая волна норовирусной инфекции[33]. В декабре 2007 была зарегистрирована вспышка в загородном клубе на севере Калифорнии, где были инфицированы от 80 до 100 человек. Два новых варианта GII.4 стали причиной около 80 % ассоциированных с вирусом Норуолк вспышек. Они были названы 2006a и 2006b. В недавних отчётах говорится о связи между группой крови и восприимчивостью к норовирусной инфекции[34][35][36].

Учёные медицинского факультета университета Вашингтона в Сент-Луисе предположили, что белок MDA-5 может быть первичным иммунным сенсором, который выявляет наличие вирусов Норуолк в организме[37]. Любопытно, что некоторые люди имеют общие вариации MDA-5-гена, что делает их более восприимчивыми к норовирусной инфекции[38].

Структура вируса

Геном вируса Норуолк представляет собой одноцепочную (+)РНК размером приблизительно 7,5 тыс. нуклеотидов, содержащую 3 открытые рамки считывания, кодирующие неструктурный полипептид, претерпевающий автопротеолиз с образованием 5 активных белков, главный структурный белок (VP1) в пределах 58~60 кДа и минорный капсидный белок (VP2)[39]. При рассмотрении в электронный микроскоп вирусные частицы демонстрируют аморфное строение поверхности; размер вирусных частиц — между 27 и 38 нм[40].

См. также

Ссылки

Примечания

Логотип Викисловаря
В Викисловаре есть статья «норовирус»
  1. Таксономия вирусов (англ.) на сайте Международного комитета по таксономии вирусов (ICTV).
  2. 1 2 Пиневич А. В., Сироткин А. К., Гаврилова О. В., Потехин А. А. Вирусология : учебник. — СПб. : Издательство Санкт-Петербургского университета, 2012. — С. 355. — ISBN 978-5-288-05328-3.
  3. 1 2 Сергеев В. А., Непоклонов Е. А., Алипер Т. И. Вирусы и вирусные вакцины. — М. : Библионика, 2007. — С. 462—463. — ISBN 5-98685-012-2.
  4. Таксономия вирусов (англ.) на сайте Международного комитета по таксономии вирусов (ICTV). (Проверено 19 августа 2016).
  5. 1 2 Lindesmith L, Moe C, Marionneau S; et al. (2003). “Human susceptibility and resistance to Norwalk virus infection”. Nat. Med. 9 (5): 548—53. DOI:10.1038/nm860. PMID 12692541.
  6. Norovirus: Technical Fact Sheet (неопр.). National Center for Infectious Diseases, CDC. Архивировано 24 марта 2012 года.
  7. Ahmed S. M., Hall A. J., Robinson A. E., Verhoef L., Premkumar P., Parashar U. D., Koopmans M., Lopman B. A. Global prevalence of norovirus in cases of gastroenteritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. (англ.) // The Lancet infectious diseases. — 2014. — Vol. 14, no. 8. — P. 725—730. — DOI:10.1016/S1473-3099(14)70767-4. — PMID 24981041. [исправить]
  8. Widdowson MA, Sulka A, Bulens SN; et al. (2005). “Norovirus and foodborne disease, United States, 1991-2000”. Emerging Infect. Dis. 11 (1): 95—102. PMID 15705329.
  9. 1 2 3 Goodgame R (2006). “Norovirus gastroenteritis”. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 8 (5): 401—8. DOI:10.1007/s11894-006-0026-4. PMID 16968608.
  10. Lindesmith L, Moe C, Lependu J, Frelinger JA, Treanor J, Baric RS (2005). “Cellular and humoral immunity following Snow Mountain virus challenge”. J. Virol. 79 (5): 2900—9. DOI:10.1128/JVI.79.5.2900-2909.2005. PMID 15709009.
  11. Hutson, AM; Atmar RL, Graham DY, Estes MK. (July 2003). “Norwalk virus infection and disease is associated with ABO histo-blood group type”. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 188 (1): 176–7. Используется устаревший параметр |coauthors= (справка)
  12. Noda M, Fukuda S, Nishio O (2007). “Statistical analysis of attack rate in norovirus foodborne outbreaks”. Int J Food Microbiol. 122: 216. DOI:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.11.073. PMID 18177970.
  13. Koopmans M, Duizer E (2004). “Foodborne viruses: an emerging problem”. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 90 (1): 23—41. DOI:10.1016/S0168-1605(03)00169-7. PMID 14672828.
  14. Jimenez L, Chiang M (2006). “Virucidal activity of a quaternary ammonium compound disinfectant against feline calicivirus: a surrogate for norovirus”. Am J Infect Control. 34 (5): 269—73. DOI:10.1016/j.ajic.2005.11.009. PMID 16765204.
  15. Vinjé J, Green J, Lewis DC, Gallimore CI, Brown DW, Koopmans MP (2000). “Genetic polymorphism across regions of the three open reading frames of "Norwalk-like viruses"”. Arch. Virol. 145 (2): 223—41. PMID 10752550.
  16. Kapikian AZ (1996). “Overview of viral gastroenteritis”. Arch. Virol. Suppl. 12: 7—19. PMID 9015097.
  17. ICTVdB Management (2006). 00.012.0.03. Norovirus. In: ICTVdB — The Universal Virus Database, version 4. Büchen-Osmond, C. (Ed), Columbia University, New York, USA
  18. Goodgame R (2006). “Norovirus gastroenteritis”. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 8 (5): 401—8. DOI:10.1007/s11894-006-0026-4. PMID 16968608.
  19. Appleton H (1987). “Small round viruses: classification and role in food-borne infections”. Ciba Found. Symp. 128: 108—25. PMID 3036438.
  20. В лагере «Зеркальный» дети заразились норовирусом
  21. Marshall JA, Bruggink LD (2006). “Laboratory diagnosis of norovirus”. Clin. Lab. 52 (11–12): 571—81. PMID 17175887.
  22. Wilhelmi de Cal I, Revilla A, del Alamo JM, Román E, Moreno S, Sánchez-Fauquier A (2007). “Evaluation of two commercial enzyme immunoassays for the detection of norovirus in faecal samples from hospitalised children with sporadic acute gastroenteritis”. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 13 (3): 341—3. DOI:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01594.x. PMID 17391396.
  23. 1 2 CDC Preventing Norovirus Infection
  24. Chadwick PR, Beards G, Brown D, Caul EO, Cheesbrough J, Clarke I, Curry A, O'Brien S, Quigley K, Sellwood J, Westmoreland D (2000). “Management of hospital outbreaks of gastro-enteritis due to small roundstructured viruses”. J. Hosp. Infect. 45 (1): 1—10. DOI:10.1053/jhin.2000.0662. PMID 10833336.
  25. Takeda's norovirus vaccine misses endpoint in early-phase trial - FierceVaccines
  26. Hedberg CW, Osterholm MT (1993). “Outbreaks of food-borne and waterborne viral gastroenteritis”. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 6 (3): 199—210. PMID 8395330.
  27. Parashar UD, Monroe SS (2001). “"Norwalk-like viruses" as a cause of foodborne disease outbreaks”. Rev. Med. Virol. 11 (4): 243—52. DOI:10.1002/rmv.321. PMID 11479930.
  28. Norwalk Virus Infection and Disease Is Associated with ABO Histo-Blood Group Type, The Journal of Infectious Diseases. Проверено 5 февраля 2007.
  29. Harrington P. R., Lindesmith L., Yount B., Moe C. L., Baric R. S. Binding of Norwalk virus-like particles to ABH histo-blood group antigens is blocked by antisera from infected human volunteers or experimentally vaccinated mice. (англ.) // Journal of virology. — 2002. — Vol. 76, no. 23. — P. 12335—12343. — PMID 12414974. [исправить]
  30. Shieh Y, Monroe SS, Fankhauser RL, Langlois GW, Burkhardt W, Baric RS (2000). “Detection of norwalk-like virus in shellfish implicated in illness”. J. Infect. Dis. 181 Suppl 2: S360—6. PMID 10804149.
  31. Department of Health and Ageing Norovirus laboratory case definition
  32. Ramirez S, Giammanco GM, De Grazia S, Colomba C, Martella V, Arista S (2008). “Genotyping of GII.4 and GIIb norovirus RT-PCR amplicons by RFLP analysis”. J. Virol. Methods. 147 (2): 250—6. DOI:10.1016/j.jviromet.2007.09.005. PMID 17953996.
  33. Tu ET, Bull RA, Greening GE, Hewitt J, Lyon MJ, Marshall JA, McIver CJ, Rawlinson WD, White PA (2008). “Epidemics of gastroenteritis during 2006 were associated with the spread of norovirus GII.4 variants 2006a and 2006b”. Clin. Infect. Dis. 46 (3): 413—20. DOI:10.1086/525259. PMID 18177226.
  34. Huang P, Farkas T, Marionneau S, Zhong W, Ruvoën-Clouet N, Morrow AL, Altaye M, Pickering LK, Newburg DS, LePendu J, Jiang X (2003). “Noroviruses bind to human ABO, Lewis, and secretor histo-blood group antigens: identification of 4 distinct strain-specific patterns”. J. Infect. Dis. 188 (1): 19—31. DOI:10.1086/375742. PMID 12825167.
  35. Huang P, Farkas T, Zhong W, Tan M, Thornton S, Morrow AL, Jiang X (2005). “Norovirus and histo-blood group antigens: demonstration of a wide spectrum of strain specificities and classification of two major binding groups among multiple binding patterns”. J. Virol. 79 (11): 6714—22. DOI:10.1128/JVI.79.11.6714-6722.2005. PMID 15890909.
  36. Rockx BH, Vennema H, Hoebe CJ, Duizer E, Koopmans MP (2005). “Association of histo-blood group antigens and susceptibility to norovirus infections”. J. Infect. Dis. 191 (5): 749—54. DOI:10.1086/427779. PMID 15688291.
  37. McCartney SA, Thackray LB, Gitlin L, Gilfillan S, Virgin Iv HW, Colonna M (July 18 2008). “MDA-5 recognition of a murine norovirus”. PLoS Pathog. PMID 18636103. Текст "PubMed — in process" пропущен (справка); Проверьте дату в |date= (справка на английском)
  38. Researchers Discover Primary Sensor That Detects Stomach Viruses Newswise, Retrieved on July 20, 2008.
  39. Clarke IN, Lambden PR (2000). “Organization and expression of calicivirus genes”. J. Infect. Dis. 181 Suppl 2: S309—16. PMID 10804143.
  40. Prasad BV, Crawford S, Lawton JA, Pesavento J, Hardy M, Estes MK (2001). “Structural studies on gastroenteritis viruses”. Novartis Found. Symp. 238: 26—37, discussion 37–46. PMID 11444031.


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Вирус Норуолк: Brief Summary ( руски )

добавил wikipedia русскую Википедию
 src= Фотография частиц вируса Норуолк в фекалиях, полученная с помощью трансмиссионного микроскопа

Вирус Норуолк — вирус без внешней оболочки из семейства Caliciviridae, геном которых представлен одноцепочной РНК, различают несколько генетических групп. Согласно Международному комитету по таксономии вирусов род норовирусов имеет одну разновидность — вирус Норуолк (Norwalk virus), сокращенно «NV». Серотипы, штаммы и изоляты включают:

вирус Пустыни Шилд (Desert Shield virus) [U04469] (Hu/NLV/DSV395/1990/SR) вирус Лордсдейл (Lordsdale virus) [X86557] (Hu/NLV/LD/1993/UK) вирус Мексико (Mexico virus)[U22498] (Hu/NLV/MX/1989/MX) вирус Норуолк (Norwalk virus) [M87661] (Hu/NLV/NV/1968/US) вирус Гавайи (Hawaii virus) [U07611] (Hu/NLV/HV/1971/US) вирус Снежных гор (Snow Mountain virus)[L23831] (Hu/NLV/SMV/1976/US) вирус Саут-хэмптон (Southampton virus) [L07418] (Hu/NLV/SHV/1991/UK).

Во всём мире вирусы Норуолк являются основной причиной острого гастроэнтерита, часто заболевание проявляется групповыми вспышками в учреждениях. Норовирусы крайне заразны, уже 10 вирусных частиц способны вызвать инфекцию. Заболевание передаётся через заражённую пищу или воду и от человека к человеку. Механизм передачи главным образом фекально-оральный, но есть вероятность заразиться и воздушно-капельным путём, когда возбудители попадают в воздух с капельками рвотных масс. Норовирусы подразделяют на 5 геногрупп: геногруппа I (GI) включает вирус Норволк, вирус Пустыни Шилд и вирус Саут-хэмптон, и группа II (GII) — вирус Бристоль, вирус Лордсдейл, вирус Торонто, вирус Мексико, вирус Гавайи и вирус Снежных гор.

Геногруппы подразделяются на разные кластеры или генотипы. Например, геногруппа II, наиболее превалирующая «человеческая» геногруппа, до настоящего времени содержит 19 генотипов. Геногруппы I, II и IV вызывают поражения у человека, а геногруппа III инфицирует рогатый скот. Геногруппа V недавно была обнаружена у мышей.

Норовирусы геногруппы II, генотип 4 (сокр. GII4) являются причиной большинства вспышек гастроэнтерита у взрослых и часто перемещаются по всей планете. Недавние образцы содержат US95/96-US-штамм, который имеет отношение к глобальным вспышкам середины и конца 90-х, вирус Фармингтон Хиллс (Farmington Hills) ассоциируется со вспышками в Европе и Соединённых Штатах в 2002 году, а вирус Хантер (Hunter virus) — со вспышками в Европе, Японии и Австралазии 2004 года. В 2006 году наблюдалась очередная мировая волна норовирусной инфекции. В декабре 2007 была зарегистрирована вспышка в загородном клубе на севере Калифорнии, где были инфицированы от 80 до 100 человек. Два новых варианта GII.4 стали причиной около 80 % ассоциированных с вирусом Норуолк вспышек. Они были названы 2006a и 2006b. В недавних отчётах говорится о связи между группой крови и восприимчивостью к норовирусной инфекции.

Учёные медицинского факультета университета Вашингтона в Сент-Луисе предположили, что белок MDA-5 может быть первичным иммунным сенсором, который выявляет наличие вирусов Норуолк в организме. Любопытно, что некоторые люди имеют общие вариации MDA-5-гена, что делает их более восприимчивыми к норовирусной инфекции.

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ノーウォークウイルス ( јапонски )

добавил wikipedia 日本語
ノーウォークウイルス 分類(ウイルス) : 第4群(1本鎖RNA +鎖) : カリシウイルス科 Caliciviridae : ノロウイルス属 Norovirus : ノーウォークウイルス Norwalk virus

ノーウォークウイルス: Norwalk virus)とは、ウイルス性胃腸炎を引き起こすウイルスの一種である。ウイルスが発見された米国地名オハイオ州ノーウォークにちなんで命名された。

国際ウイルス分類委員会英語版により、ウイルスは「」-「」-「」という階層で分類されており[1][2]、「ノーウォークウイルス種」は「カリシウイルス科」-「ノーウォーク様ウイルス属」に属していた[3][4]2002年の同委員会での承認によって、「ノーウォーク様ウイルス属」は「ノロウイルス属」へと名称変更が行われ[5]、現在では「ノーウォークウイルス種」は「カリシウイルス科」-「ノロウイルス属」に含まれる唯一の種である[6]。ノーウォーク様ウイルス(属)がノロウイルス(属)へと改名されたために、ノーウォークウイルス(種)もノロウイルス(属)へ改名されたものと誤解されがちである。最近ではメディア医療/保健などの各機関でノロウイルスという属名が頻繁に使用されるようになっている。

このような状況の一方で、日本を初め世界中において「ノロ (NORO)」という名字が確認されることから、「『ノロ (NORO)』姓の子供たちがいじめやからかいを受けるおそれがある」との指摘が国際ウイルス分類委員会に寄せられていた。そこで同委員会は、2011年3月以降、現在および過去の委員や関係者との議論を重ね、9月の札幌での国際微生物学連合2011会議[7]において「ノロウイルス」名称の提案者を含めた各国の専門家たちと深く議論を行っている。2011年9月14日には「『ノロウイルス』というのは属名であって、そのようなウイルス種名は存在しない。ゆえに正しい呼称(種名である『ノーウォークウイルス』)を使用すべきである。またノーウォークウイルスに起因する病気の発生に対して『ノロウイルス』という用語を使用しないよう、メディア、医療/保健の各機関、科学者団体に強く求める」という結論を公式のプレスリリースで発表している[8]。また、同内容を同委員会公式ホームページ会報[9]上でも発表している。

脚注[編集]

[ヘルプ]
  1. ^ Virus Taxonomy: 2011 Release (current)”. 国際ウイルス分類委員会. ^ ICTV Master Species List 2011 v2”. 国際ウイルス分類委員会 (2012年12月24日閲覧。
  2. ^ 武田直和, 白土東子, 岡 智一郎, 片山和彦, 宇田川悦子, 名取克郎, 宮村達 (2003). “カリシウイルスの命名変更について”. 病原微生物検出情報月報 (国立感染研究所) 24 (12): 311-312. http://idsc.nih.go.jp/iasr/24/286/dj2861.html.
  3. ^ Pringle CR (1999). “Virus Taxonomy at the XIth International Congress of Virology, Sydney, Australia, 1999”. Archives of Virology 144 (10): 2065–2070. PMID 10550679. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10550679.
  4. ^ Mayo MA (2002). “A summary of taxonomic changes recently approved by ICTV”. Archives of Virology 147 (8): 1655–1663. PMID 12181683. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12181683.
  5. ^ Andrew M.Q. King, Elliot Lefkowitz, Michael J. Adams and Eric B. Carstens, ed (2011). “Family – Caliciviridae”. Virus Taxonomy: Ninth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 982. ISBN 978-0-12-384684-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384684-6.00084-7.
  6. ^ IUMS 2011 congressホームページ”. 国際微生物学連合. ^ Press release, 国際ウイルス分類委員会, (2011年9月14日)
  7. ^ 2011 ICTV Newsletter #9, November 2011”. 国際ウイルス分類委員会 (2012年12月26日閲覧。

関連項目[編集]

 src= ウィキスピーシーズにノロウイルス属に関する情報があります。 執筆の途中です この項目は、医学に関連した書きかけの項目です。この項目を加筆・訂正などしてくださる協力者を求めていますプロジェクト:医学Portal:医学と医療)。
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ノーウォークウイルス: Brief Summary ( јапонски )

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ノーウォークウイルス(: Norwalk virus)とは、ウイルス性胃腸炎を引き起こすウイルスの一種である。ウイルスが発見された米国地名オハイオ州ノーウォークにちなんで命名された。

国際ウイルス分類委員会英語版)により、ウイルスは「」-「」-「」という階層で分類されており、「ノーウォークウイルス種」は「カリシウイルス科」-「ノーウォーク様ウイルス属」に属していた。2002年の同委員会での承認によって、「ノーウォーク様ウイルス属」は「ノロウイルス属」へと名称変更が行われ、現在では「ノーウォークウイルス種」は「カリシウイルス科」-「ノロウイルス属」に含まれる唯一の種である。ノーウォーク様ウイルス(属)がノロウイルス(属)へと改名されたために、ノーウォークウイルス(種)もノロウイルス(属)へ改名されたものと誤解されがちである。最近ではメディア医療/保健などの各機関でノロウイルスという属名が頻繁に使用されるようになっている。

このような状況の一方で、日本を初め世界中において「ノロ (NORO)」という名字が確認されることから、「『ノロ (NORO)』姓の子供たちがいじめやからかいを受けるおそれがある」との指摘が国際ウイルス分類委員会に寄せられていた。そこで同委員会は、2011年3月以降、現在および過去の委員や関係者との議論を重ね、9月の札幌での国際微生物学連合2011会議において「ノロウイルス」名称の提案者を含めた各国の専門家たちと深く議論を行っている。2011年9月14日には「『ノロウイルス』というのは属名であって、そのようなウイルス種名は存在しない。ゆえに正しい呼称(種名である『ノーウォークウイルス』)を使用すべきである。またノーウォークウイルスに起因する病気の発生に対して『ノロウイルス』という用語を使用しないよう、メディア、医療/保健の各機関、科学者団体に強く求める」という結論を公式のプレスリリースで発表している。また、同内容を同委員会公式ホームページ会報上でも発表している。

лиценца
cc-by-sa-3.0
авторски права
ウィキペディアの著者と編集者
изворно
посети извор
соработничко мреж. место
wikipedia 日本語