Starksia

Diagnosis: The modal fin-ray count of D-XX-XXI,8 A-II,17-18 and P-14 indicates species of the Starksia ocellata complex. S. elongata can share this modal count (modally 17 anal-fin soft rays) but usually have fewer than 5 procurrent caudal-fin rays and are more slender. The S. atlantica complex also have 14 pectoral-fin rays but have fewer dorsal-fin spines and anal-fin rays. (DNA) S. ocellata occurs in Florida and the Gulf of Mexico. S. occidentalis is found along the Central American coastline. S. culebrae is the species in the N. Lesser Antilles, S. guttata in the S. Lesser Antilles, and S. variabilis in Colombia. Description: (based on S. occidentalis) Body long, narrow, and thin with a large round eye, pointed snout, and medium terminal mouth. Long continuous dorsal and anal fins with a short and narrow caudal peduncle. Pectoral fins long, reaching past the vent, and pelvic fins long and thread-like, reaching about half-way to the vent. There are three spines along the angle of the preopercle that wane during transition. There are no cranial, deep nuchal, otic, or cheek melanophores (but one transitional S. ocellata larva has deep nuchal and otic melanophores). There are no melanophores along the dorsal-fin or caudal-fin base. There is an isthmus melanophore as well as a pelvic melanophore on most larvae: the pelvic melanophore is either deep (and sometimes inconspicuous) or near the surface, not far from the isthmus melanophore. A few have only the isthmus melanophore, and rarely there is a surface pelvic melanophore with no isthmus melanophore. A few larvae have an additional tiny melanophore on the anterior midline of the abdominal wall. The anal row usually starts at the second spine and the series is irregular: typically the melanophore at the 5th or 6th soft ray is more prominent than the others (not deeper) and the next one is often missing (on more than half the larvae); on occasion, the one before the larger one is missing, and uncommonly the row is regular until the last deep melanophore. The row usually stops at the 14th soft ray followed by a deep larger melanophore underlying the base of the last two rays. Uncommonly, there is an additional small melanophore after the last ray on the caudal peduncle. There are 14-18 total posterior ventral-midline melanophores. Internal retroperitoneal melanophores are only visible on less-developed larvae. Transitional larvae develop metamorphic melanophores in discrete bands across the top of the head, over the fore and midbrain lobes, along with a nuchal band, followed by a short bar below the eye at 5 o'clock and an oblique broad stripe from the eye across the anterior third of the jaws. The cranial metamorphic melanophores vary from three bands that can split to six bands to a solid patch. Settled juveniles have a dense and solid patch of melanophores over the top of the head. Analogues: Larvae are distinguished from other labrisomid genera by a wider interorbital region and the absence of cranial, deep nuchal, cheek, and otic melanophores (rare exceptions), as well as an irregular anal row, relatively short with only 14 to 18 total pvm (and the fin-ray counts detailed above). Chaenopsid larvae share the light marking patterns but have more total pvm (19 or more) and more dorsal and anal-fin soft rays. Larvae of the S. atlantica complex have a different pattern of irregular anal-row melanophores with only two or three before the first deep melanophore and only 9 to 12 pvm, and have fewer dorsal and anal-fin elements. Larvae of the S. lepicoelia complex can appear quite similar, but are missing the pelvic melanophore, have no irregular melanophores in the anal row (some do have the last melanophore located deep), have 13 pectoral-fin rays (and lower dorsal and anal fin-ray counts than the co-occurring member of the S. ocellata complex). Metamorphic melanophore patterns are quite similar, but in larvae of the S. lepicoelia complex the patch of melanophores over the head develops into poorly defined bands, and they develop prominent single melanophores on the body on each side under the gill covers.

Diagnosis: The modal fin-ray count of D-XIX,8 A-II,15-16 and P-13 broadly overlaps almost all of the numerous 13 pectoral-fin-rayed Starksia species. Precise knowledge of the locality and the sympatric congeners (or DNA sequencing) is required for species-level identification among this large group of species. (DNA) S. sluiteri is found in the Netherlands Antilles. S. fasciata occurs in the Bahamas and Cuba, S. langi is the species in the Bay of Honduras and perhaps Panama, and S. greenfieldi occurs in the SE Caribbean. The endemic species in the Cayman Islands is S. y-lineata and S. smithvanizi is found in Navassa and the N. Lesser Antilles. 19,7 2,15 adult

This genus of tiny and elusive blennies may become one of the largest genera of Caribbean reef fishes as more species are described in the coming years (presently 25 and counting). Genetic analyses show that many long-standing widespread species are made up of complexes of similar-appearing species, usually geographically separated (easy to explain), but sometimes sympatric (not so easy to explain). Our recent paper describes seven new species, and numerous other unnamed lineages. Unfortunately, fin-ray counts for the entire genus are similar and broadly overlapping. Furthermore, adult markings on Starksia are both highly variable and patterns are often shared among species, making identifications particularly challenging. It certainly does not help that males and females often have different sets of markings. Much of the variation in appearance occurs in live coloration only and the dearth of live specimens or underwater photographs makes identifications quite difficult. Starksia are morphologically similar to other labrisomids and some chaenopsid blennies and are distinguished primarily by having fewer soft dorsal-fin rays: 7 or 8, uncommonly 9. Mature males have unusual genital papillae whose morphology can be useful for taxonomy. Starksia fin-ray counts can overlap the lowest range for several species of Malacoctenus, although only a very rare individual shares the full combination of median and pectoral-fin ray counts. Two common Malacoctenus species occasionally have as few as 8 dorsal-fin soft rays: M. macropus (with 15 pectoral-fin rays) and M. erdmani (with 16). In general, the overlapping Malacoctenus species have higher pectoral and anal-fin ray counts. Additional characters distinguishing Starksia include fewer procurrent caudal-fin rays (4-5, vs. 6 or more), the last dorsal-fin spine stout and long (2/3 to 3/4 of the first soft ray), and the shortest dorsal-fin spine typically the third or fourth-to-last. Some of the larger-settling Starksia species, particularly the S. ocellata complex, can resemble M. macropus as juveniles. They share long single nuchal and orbital cirri and most fin-ray counts, but Malacoctenus have three pelvic-fin rays vs. two in Starksia. M. macropus also develop smaller mouths, pointier snouts, and a narrower caudal peduncle (the maxilla extends only to the anterior half of the orbit and the caudal peduncle depth is less than half the maximum body depth). Another useful distinction is that Starksia have separate anterior and posterior segments of the lateral line while other labrisomids have continuous lateral lines. Juveniles and adults of the other species of Malacoctenus and Labrisomus are also quickly excluded by multifid cirri and larger size. Some chaenopsid blennies are also small and can resemble Starksia, however all have more than 10 dorsal-fin soft rays, typically several more, and more total dorsal-fin elements, 30 or more, usually many more (only Coralliozetus cardonae would overlap the total dorsal-fin count, but still ten or more soft rays). In addition, chaenopsids characteristically have the last dorsal-fin spine the shortest and slender, while Starksia have a distinctly long and stout last spine. Most information is from Bohlke and Springer's 1961 monograph "A review of the Atlantic species of the Clinid fish genus Starksia", Greenfield's "..Starksia ocellata-complex.." (1979), Greenfield & Johnson's 1985 large survey paper on "The blennioid fishes of Belize and Honduras...", Jeff Williams' 2003 review "Descriptions of six new Caribbean fish species in the genus Starksia (Labrisomidae)" by Williams and Mounts (note that there are many post-publication corrections by Jeff), and our recent 2011 review paper.

(note: fin-ray counts in parentheses are ranges, mode in bold, and two anal-fin spines not listed) with 14 pectoral-fin rays: The S. atlantica complex, no orbital cirrus (all other Starksia have an orbital cirrus) (shallow forereef) S. atlantica in the Bahamas and Antilles (18-19,7-8,15-16,14) and other locations and lineages S. springeri in the Neth. Antilles (18,8,15,14) S. sangreyae in the Bay of Honduras (19-20,7-8,14-15-16,14) The S. ocellata complex (shallow inshore, continental & silty high island) S. ocellata in Florida (20-21-22,7-8-9,17-18-19,14) S. culebrae in Haiti to St. Vincent (20-21-22,7-8-9,17-18-19,14) S. guttata in SE Caribbean (20-21,8-9,17-18,14) S. occidentalis in the W Caribbean (20-21,7-8-9,16-17-18,14) S. variabilis in Colombia (20-21,7-8,17-18,14) S. brasiliensis in Brazil An unresolved complex of S. elongata also with 14 pectoral-fin rays (20-21,7-8-9,17-18,14) with 13 pectoral-fin rays (and orbital cirri): An unresolved complex of S. nanodes (19-20-21,7-8,16-17,13) (deep coral habitat) S. hassi (19-20,8-9,17,13 with a small visible 3rd pelvic-fin ray) (deep coral habitat) The S. lepicoelia complex (shallow and deep, coral): S. lepicoelia in the Bahamas (19-20,7-8-9,16-17-18,13) and other locations and lineages S. robertsoni in Panama (19-20,7,15-16-17,13) S. weigti in Belize (19-20,7-8,16-17,13) S. williamsi in the northern Lesser Antilles (USVI and Saba)(19-20,7-8,16-17,13) The S. sluiteri complex (two habitat types): (shallow coral, offshore reefs, continental and insular) S. sluiteri in the Neth. Antilles (19-20,7-8-9,15-16,13) and other locations and lineages S. greenfieldi in the SE Caribbean (18-19-20,7-8-9,15-16,13) S. langi in the Bay of Honduras and Panama (19-20,7-8,15-16,13) S. multilepis in Noronha, Brazil (20,8,16-17,13) (shallow rock, exposed, low island) S. fasciata in the Bahamas and Cuba (19-20,7-8,15-16,13) S. y-lineata Cayman Islands & Nicaraguan shelf (18-19-20,7-8,15-16,13) S. smithvanizi in Navassa, USVI (19,7-8,15-16,13) And others: S. leucovitta in Navassa (18-19,8-9,15-16-17,13) (deep rocky wall) S. melasma in PR & USVI (18-19-20,7-8-9,15-16,13) S. rava in Tobago (19-20-21,7-8-9,16-17-18,13) (deep rocky wall) S. sella in Tobago (18-19,7-8-9,16-17,13) (deep rocky wall) S. starcki is a distinctive species from the Florida Keys, Yucatan & Belize (20(BZ)-21(FL), 8-9, 18(BZ)-19(FL),13) Nemaclinus atelestos, a rare labrisomid found only on deep dropoffs, looks much like the Starksia species. It has higher median-fin ray counts, but fewer pectoral-fin rays: D-XXI-XXIII,7-9 A-II,18-19 and only 11-12 pectoral-fin rays. It also has notably long pelvic-fin rays, extending well beyond the origin of the anal fin.

Larvae of Starksia are small typical-looking labrisomids and have few distinguishing characteristics, making them difficult to detect among the far more abundant Malacoctenus and Labrisomus larvae in most samples. Fortunately, most Starksia larvae are missing some of the typical labrisomid melanophores and the exceptions have distinctive larval markings, such as the irregular (larger and deeper) melanophores in the anal row on larvae of the S. atlantica and S. ocellata complexes. In general, especially at earlier-stages, Starksia larvae have more of a tadpole-like shape with wider heads, than the other slimmer labrisomids and the related tripterygiids and chaenopsids (note wide triangular forebrain lobes in Starksia larva (right, larva on the left).

There are no taxognomonic characters uniquely identifying all Starksia larvae, but the absence of a set of common markings is typical of most Starksia larvae. Typically, the only anterior larval melanophore is at the isthmus. Notably, most larvae are missing the cranial, deep nuchal, cheek, internal otic, and pelvic melanophores (there are exceptions for all but the cheek melanophore among the S. atlantica and S. ocellata complexes). On all species, the anal row spares one or more of the last rays and usually there are no ventral caudal-peduncle melanophores (at most one on some individuals of some species). The absence of some of the usually consistent melanophores on a labrisomid larva should prompt a closer examination. Chaenopsidae larvae share the light marking patterns but have more total pvm (19 or more) and more dorsal and anal-fin soft rays.

Paraclinus larvae superficially look much like Starksia larvae, but can be distinguished by their distinctive all or all-but-one spinous dorsal fin. They also have no preopercular spines and more melanophores, including the deep nuchal and deep pelvic and often the cheek and otic melanophores, as well as a regular anal row with more than 18 total pvm. The Starksia species that share deep nuchal (rarely) and pelvic melanophores can be distinguished from Paraclinus by having diagnostic irregular large or deep anal-row melanophores and shorter anal rows). Starksia typically have 5 or 6 procurrent caudal-fin rays, one or two more than Paraclinus larvae, and one to several fewer than the Malacoctenus and Labrisomus.

Diagnosis: The modal fin-ray count of D-IXX-XX,7 or 8 A-II,16-17 and P-13 broadly overlaps almost all of the numerous 13 pectoral-fin-rayed Starksia species. A strong mode of D-XX,7 is (thus far) found only in S. robertsoni, S. aff. lepicoelia from Barbados, and S. nanodes. Precise knowledge of the locality and the sympatric congeners (or DNA sequencing) is required for species-level identification among this large group of species. (DNA) S. lepicoelia was described from the Bahamas, where more than one genetic lineage occurs. S. robertsoni is found in Panama, S. weigti is the species in the Bay of Honduras, and S. williamsi occurs in the N. Lesser Antilles. Other deeply-divergent DNA lineages have been identified elsewhere in the Caribbean. Description: Body long, narrow, and thin with a large round eye, pointed snout, and medium terminal mouth. Long continuous dorsal and anal fins with a short and narrow caudal peduncle. Pectoral fins long, reaching past the vent, and pelvic fins long and thread-like, reaching about half-way to the vent. There are three spines along the angle of the preopercle that wane during transition. There are no cranial, deep nuchal, otic, or cheek melanophores. There are no melanophores along the dorsal-fin or caudal-fin base. There is a single mid-isthmus melanophore and no pelvic melanophores. The anal row starts at the second spine or first soft ray and spares one or a few of the next-to-last rays (sometimes one or two others can be missing). The last melanophore can be either just after the base of the last ray or sometimes deep under the last two rays (Barbados). There are 13-17 total posterior ventral-midline melanophores. Internal retroperitoneal melanophores are only visible on less-developed larvae. Transitional larvae develop metamorphic melanophores in a broad, mostly uniform patch over the head and a single nuchal band, followed by a short bar below the eye at 5 o'clock and a broad oblique stripe from the eye across the anterior half of the jaws. Transitional larvae develop one or two large surface melanophores (that look more like larval than metamorphic melanophores) on each side on the thorax under the gill cover, below the pectoral insertion. As transition progresses, the orbital cirrus grows and the fish become mostly pallid (in life they are red), retaining few dark markings. The prominent dense patch of metamorphic melanophores over the head separates into poorly-separated bands and then disperse (some juveniles (Barbados) then develop a prominent midline cranial melanophore between the forebrain and midbrain). Analogues: Larvae are distinguished from other labrisomid genera by a wider interorbital region and the absence of cranial, deep nuchal, cheek, otic, and pelvic melanophores, as well as a relatively short row of 13 to 17 pvm (and the fin-ray counts detailed above). Chaenopsid larvae share the light marking patterns but have more total pvm (19 or more) and more dorsal and anal-fin soft rays. Larvae of the S. ocellata complex have a similar number of ventral melanophores and can be difficult to distinguish, but usually have a pelvic melanophore, a more prominent melanophore in the mid anal row with the adjacent one often missing, and 14 pectoral-fin rays (and higher dorsal and anal fin-ray counts than the co-occurring member of the S. lepicoelia complex). S. atlantica larvae are distinguished by only 9-12 pvm, a pelvic melanophore, sometimes cranial melanophores, irregular deep melanophores in the anal row, and 14 pectoral-fin rays. Metamorphic melanophore patterns are also similar, but in the S. ocellata and S. atlantica complexes the melanophores over the head become well-defined discrete bands (before coalescing into a dense patch in juveniles) and they do not have the large thoracic melanophores on the body on each side under the gill covers. In addition, transitional larvae of the S. atlantica complex do not develop an orbital cirrus.

Diagnosis: The modal fin-ray count of D-XVIII-IXX,8 A-II,15-16 and P-14 indicates species of the Starksia atlantica complex. S. elongata and the S. ocellata complex share the 14 pectoral-fin rays but have more dorsal-fin spines and anal-fin rays. (DNA) S. atlantica occurs in the Bahamas. S. springeri is found in the Netherlands Antilles and S. sangreyae is the species in the Bay of Honduras. Other deeply-divergent DNA lineages have been identified elsewhere in the Caribbean. Description: Body long, narrow, and thin with a large round eye, pointed snout, and medium terminal mouth. Long continuous dorsal and anal fins with a short and narrow caudal peduncle. Pectoral fins long, reaching past the vent, and pelvic fins long and thread-like, reaching about half-way to the vent. There are three spines along the angle of the preopercle that wane during transition. There are often no cranial, deep nuchal, otic, or cheek melanophores, but some larvae have cranial melanophores, either a pair side-by-side or one of the pair, and a few larvae have a mostly obscured deep nuchal melanophore. There are no melanophores along the dorsal-fin or caudal-fin base. There is an isthmus melanophore as well as a surface pelvic melanophore on most larvae: rarely the isthmus melanophore is absent. The anal row is irregular and short: starting behind the second spine and typically missing the melanophores at the 3rd and 5th soft rays with a larger, deeper and dendritic melanophore near the base of the 4th ray. The row ends around the 11th soft ray and is followed by another larger and deeper melanophore near the base of the 13th soft ray. There are no ventral caudal-peduncle melanophores and only 9-12 total posterior ventral-midline melanophores. Internal retroperitoneal melanophores are only visible on less-developed larvae. Transitional larvae develop metamorphic melanophores in a pattern of bands over the head and a single nuchal band, followed by a short bar below the eye at 5 o'clock and a broad oblique stripe from the eye across the anterior half of the jaws. Analogues: Larvae are distinguished from other labrisomid genera by a wider interorbital region and a short anal row, with only 9 to 12 total pvm (including irregular deep melanophores), along with the absence of cheek and otic and frequently the cranial and deep nuchal melanophores (and the fin-ray counts detailed above). Chaenopsid larvae share the light marking patterns but have more total pvm (19 or more) and more dorsal and anal-fin soft rays. Larvae of the S. ocellata complex have 14 to 18 pvm with 5 or 6 before the first deep melanophore, and higher dorsal and anal-fin element counts. Larvae of the S. lepicoelia complex have 13 to 17 pvm, all regular (some do have the last melanophore located deep), are missing the pelvic melanophore, and have 13 pectoral-fin rays. Metamorphic melanophore patterns are quite similar in the genus, but in larvae of the S. lepicoelia complex the patch of melanophores over the head does not develop into well-defined discrete bands and they develop prominent single melanophores on the body on each side under the gill covers.

Starksia is a genus of labrisomid blennies native to the western Atlantic Ocean and the eastern Pacific Ocean. Their typical length is 2 cm (0.79 in) SL. The generic name honours the American ichthyologist Edwin Chapin Starks (1867-1932) of Stanford University for his work on Pacific coastal fishes. As a genus Starksia is distinguished from other labrisomids by their scaled bodies, two obvious soft rays in the pelvic fin and the male's have an intromittent organ which is near to or attached to the first spine of their anal fins, which is also somewhat separated from the fin.