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Associations ( англиски )

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One important predator of Acropora millepora is Acanthaster planci, the crown-of-thorns starfish. This starfish is regarded as a specialist corallivore. Acropora was the most preferred prey coral of Ancathaster planci, being favored over Porites (another hard coral) by 14:1. This could be due to A. millepora's branching morphology, as branching coral are favored about 7:1 over massives (De'ath and Moran, 1998).

Known Predators:

  • Acanthaster planci, the crown-of-thorns starfish
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Morphology ( англиски )

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Acropora millepora is a hard coral. Starting from a single embryonic cell, it has been found to reach 5.1 mm in diameter during a period of 9.3 months (Dubinsky, 1990). This species grows mostly vertically, which leads to a bushy morphology that is semi-erect. Polyps extend from vertical branch tips on an average of 1.2 to 1.5 cm, and these polyps are nonreproductive. Laterally, though, most regions are reproductive (Hall, 1997). Polyps are on average about 1-2 mm in diameter (Anthony, 1999). Modules (in this case, polyps) that comprise a colony often show some degree of polymorphism (Hall, 1997).

Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; radial symmetry

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Ziglinski, A. 2003. "Acropora millepora" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Acropora_millepora.html
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Habitat ( англиски )

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Many reefs that have a high coral cover also have surprisingly turbid conditions, like fringing reefs around the inshore continental islands of the Great Barrier Reef Lagoon. This suggests that habitats may have turbid conditions without necessarily being detrimental to coral (Anthony, 1999).

A second issue that affects habitat is sedimentation. High sedimentation lowers coral diversity and allows the habitat to become dominated by sediment-resistant species. These reefs have slower colony growth rates, which results in reduced colony size and adaptations in the morphology of form as compared to reefs that experience lower levels of sedimentation. Sedimentation not only affects growth, but also metabolism and fecundity (Gilmour, 1999). One way in which sediment is a stress factor is that it reduces the amount of light that can penetrate to the coral for photosynthesis. Sediment also smothers coral tissues (Anthony, 1999).

Acropora millepora must have adequate light. This light is often regarded as the factor that limits maximum depth of coral growth. As depth changes, so does light intensity, spectral quality, and directional strength (The upper limits of growth are also increased with greater offshore distance of increased water clarity) (Mundy and Babcock, 1998). Studies of Acropora species show that light intensity may have an effect on settlement orientation. Planulae of Acropora millepora have shown an inclination to settle on upper surfaces rather than under surfaces (Dubinsky,1990).

Habitat Regions: tropical ; saltwater or marine

Aquatic Biomes: benthic ; reef ; coastal

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Ziglinski, A. 2003. "Acropora millepora" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Acropora_millepora.html
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Conservation Status ( англиски )

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Coral colonies may be damaged through either natural or human causes. Examples of natural damages include predation, competition, storm, and cyclone damage. Human activities such as overfishing, anchoring, diving, mining, and pollution (including sewage and sediments) can also damage the coral reefs (Hall, 1997).

How can diving affect coral? Communities of Acropora at 18-24 meter depths were the most susceptible to diver damage in a recent study (Riegl & Riegl, 1996). Acropora austera is similar to A. millepora in that it too is a branching species, so we can use A. austera as an illustration of how A. millepora might be affected. A. austera was especially susceptible to breakage by dives and dislocation in high wave energy conditions (Riegl & Riegl, 1996). However, tissue damage was not critical in this study, and it always remained way below the 5% of all scleractinian colonies.

Most of the tissue damage described above was related to natural causes. In fact, of all the factors that contribute to reef degradation, the most immediately significant are the dramatic increases in eutrophication and sedimentation (Gilmour, 1999).

This species is rated "Near Threatened" by the IUCN, based on general decline in reef coral populations and predictions of increasing ocean temperature, that causes harm to acroporine corals.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: near threatened

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Benefits ( англиски )

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A positive relationship has been found between the structural complexity of coral and the diversity in reef-fish. This diversity is concentrated in the Caribbean, East Asian, the Great Barrier Reef, and East Africa (Öhman & Rajasuriya, 1998). Studies suggest that the proportion of live coral cover affects species diversity and fish abundance in a positive correlation.

Likewise, coral habitat structure can influence fish communities (Öhman & Rajasuriya, 1998). An example is how coral feeders use branching corals like Acropora millepora. Coral feeders were correlated with live coral cover in a recent study. It showed that coral feeders actually used the branching corals for protection. This study showed a significantly direct correlation between these feeders and the density of Acropora colonies (Öhman & Rajasuriya, 1998). Not only does coral benefit humans by providing us a beautiful reef to enjoy, but it also increases the diversity of fish which we use both for amusement and enterprise.

Positive Impacts: pet trade

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Ziglinski, A. 2003. "Acropora millepora" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Acropora_millepora.html
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Trophic Strategy ( англиски )

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The main carbon requirements of Acropora millepora are fulfilled by their symbiosis with unicellular algae (Anthony, 1999). Dinoflagellates, such as zooxanthellae, line the gastrovascular cavity of corals and contribute their photosynthetic products to the coral.

However, many studies have shown that hermatypic corals are able to capture and ingest particulate food from varied sources, including phytoplankton, zooplankton, and bacteria. Usually, this species extends its polyps during both the day and night (something that is uncommon among coral) (Anthony, 1999).

Coral also has the ability to be a suspension feeder. Usually, we think of fine suspended particulate matter (SPM) in high concentrations to be a stress on nearshore coral reefs. Because coral is able to be a passive suspension feeder, SPM can actually serve as a food source (Anthony, 1999). Various sources of SPM include suspended sediment, detrital matter, excretory products from other animals, and coral mucus (Anthony, 1999). These particles are also exposed to colonization by macroalgae and bacteria, which makes this a more organically valuable food source. The contribution of zooplankton feeding is not all that different from SPM feeding, in terms of maximum rate of SPM carbon assimilation. Also, when particle concentration is high, SPM feeding can cover half of the carbon and one-third of the nitrogen that is necessary for coralline tissue growth. As SPM concentrations increase, Acropora millepora ingestion rates increase linearly (Anthony, 1999). Successfully capturing and ingesting fine particles only increases 1-fold for every 8-fold increase in food availability (Anthony, 1999).

Animal Foods: zooplankton

Plant Foods: phytoplankton

Other Foods: detritus ; microbes

Foraging Behavior: filter-feeding

Primary Diet: herbivore (Eats sap or other plant foods); planktivore

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Ziglinski, A. 2003. "Acropora millepora" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Acropora_millepora.html
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Distribution ( англиски )

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The genus Acropora, in which Acropora millepora belongs, dominates the coral reefs of the Indian and western Pacific oceans. This particular species is known to occur throughout this region, in shallow tropical waters from South Africa north to the Red Sea, east through the tropical western Pacific (Hatta, 1999).

Biogeographic Regions: indian ocean (Native ); pacific ocean (Native )

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Ziglinski, A. 2003. "Acropora millepora" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Acropora_millepora.html
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Reproduction ( англиски )

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Reef building corals, such as Acropora millepora, can reproduce sexually in an event called "mass spawning". This occurs once a year, around 3 nights in early summer when the moon is nearly full. Mass quantities of eggs and sperm are released simultaneously from the huge numbers of coral colonies, many belonging to different species and genera (Hatta, 1999). Colony size has no effect on the number of eggs or sperm per polyp, nor on the testes volume per polyp (Hall, 1996).

Acropora millepora eggs which have spawned have within them high levels of UV blocking agents. More than likely, this agent protects the eggs from UV radiation during the planktonic development stage (Dubinsky, 1990).

Within this hermaphroditic species, there is a striking difference in sex allocation. The ratio of total egg volume to total testes volume per polyp has a variability of 5 to 1. In every member of the genus Acropora, this ratio increases as colony size increases. In an attempt to explain this, it is now thought that an early investment that is mainly in the testes will allow sex to commence without having to spend the energy initially on egg production. Perhaps this allows colonies to grow larger and become safer before the expense of egg production is dealt with (Hall, 1996).

After the gametes are released into the water by adult coral, they must undergo 3 general stages of development before they may grow into newly settled coral. These stages are: 1) Fertilization and embryonic development; 2) Larval growth; 3)Settlement and metamorphosis. In each of these stages, the likelihood survival of each is low. This is due to both physical (wind, wave, salinity) and biological (predator abundance) factors (Gilmour, 1999).

One of the physical factors which affects these stages is suspended sediments. These sediments inhibit fertilization if their concentrations are high. However, they show no detectable effect on post-fertilization embryonic development (Gilmour, 1999).

Among settling and recently settled marine larvae, the mortality is very high. This suggests that this period of development is crucial in coral life. In the first 8 months of life, rates of mortality in juvenile Acropora millepora were as high as 86% (Dubinsky, 1990). In places where larval density was high, few larvae were able to survive exposure to the high and low sediment concentrations. However, where larval density was controlled, the larval survival stayed relatively stable. The sediment suspension and sediment layer were also linked to a significant decrease in larval settlement (not just larval survival) (Gilmour, 1999).

In almost all species of Acropora, individuals have a mandatory threshold size that they must attain before sexual reproduction will proceed. Once this size is met, reproductive output usually increases as a function of body size. The characteristic colony size at maturation usually corresponds to a minimum puberty age of 1-3 years (Hall, 1996). Like so many other sequential hermaphrodites, changes in sex often occur after a specific body size or age has been reached (Hall, 1996).

As mentioned before, many of the species and genera grow side by side and spawn simultaneously. Because of this, fertilization can occur between related but different species. This results in a significant number of hybrids. In a recent study, all of the hybrid embryos were active and developed into planula larvae normally. Some also metamorphosed into polyps. There was no difference in the metamorphosis frequencies between hybrid or full species larvae (Hatta, 1999).

Because clonal organisms, such as coral, are comprised of repeated polyps, a number of modes of asexual replication are present that are usually absent among solitary animals. Under favorable conditions, fragments of coral may survive, re-attach, and reproduce both asexually and sexually (Smith &Hughes, 1999). Asexual reproduction by fragmentation may be adaptive; evolved by natural selection to affect the shape and mechanical properties of branching colonies (Smith, 1999). However, asexual reproduction by fragmentation is a less important life-history trait for Acropora millepora than for other species (Smith & Hughes, 1999).

Fragmentation allows species to broaden their distribution areas and local abundance. It also allows colonization of such habitats which larvae would be unable to settle. An example is a sandy area, in which fragments are more likely than larvae to tolerate the unstable sediments because of their size (Smith & Hughes, 1999).

Acropora millepora have some of the smallest fragments in their genus. In a recent study, 8 of 15 were smaller than 6 cm, and only one of those was larger than 14 cm. These fragments had a 15% survivorship after 17 months. Larger fragments survived better than the smaller (about 30% versus 8%). Fragments that landed on the reef flat also survived better compared to the reef crest and the reef slope (32% vs. 14% vs 10%, respectively) (Smith & Hughes, 1999).

Breeding interval: This coral spawns once per year, but can reproduce by fragmentation at any time.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; simultaneous hermaphrodite; asexual ; fertilization (External ); broadcast (group) spawning; oviparous

Parental Investment: no parental involvement

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Ziglinski, A. 2003. "Acropora millepora" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Acropora_millepora.html
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Acropora millepora ( англиски )

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Acropora millepora Ehrenberg, 1834 (AM MA143258-5).jpg

Acropora millepora is a species of branching stony coral native to the western Indo-Pacific where it is found in shallow water from the east coast of Africa to the coasts of Japan and Australia. It was first described in 1834 by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg as Heteropora millepora.[3][4]

Description

Acropora millepora is a small colonial coral that grows in clumps. The short branches are cylindrical. The radial corallites are all the same size and have projecting lower rims, giving them a scale-like appearance. The colour is variable and may be green with orange tipped branches, or pale pink, orange, plain green or blue.[2]

Distribution and habitat

Acropora millepora is a common species and is found in the western and central Indo-Pacific. Its range extends from the Red Sea, Kenya and South Africa to India, Malaysia, Japan, Indonesia and Australia. This coral grows in shallow water, between two and twelve metres (six and forty feet) deep, mostly on reef flats, but also on upper reef slopes and in lagoons.[1]

Ecology

Acropora millepora is a zooxanthellate species of coral and harbours symbiotic dinoflagellates in its tissues. The larvae of Acropora millepora preferentially settle on vertical surfaces and on encrusting coralline algae. It has been found that at lower temperatures (22.5 °C (72.5 °F)) the larvae were less specific as to their choice of settlement sites and that their survival rates were lower. Surprisingly, the choice of substrate for settlement was modified by the strain of symbiont present in the locality even though it had not yet infected the tissues.[5]

Status

The main threat affecting Acropora millepora is the destruction of the coral reefs where it lives. Although relatively common it is a shallow water species and susceptible to bleaching and coral diseases. It is also collected for the reef aquarium trade. Corals in general are expected to be impacted by rising sea temperatures and ocean acidification. For these reasons, the IUCN has listed Acropora millepora as being "Near Threatened".[1]

References

  1. ^ a b c Richards, Z.T.; Delbeek, J.T.; Lovell, E.R.; Bass, D.; Aeby, G. & Reboton, C. (2014). "Acropora millepora". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN. 2014: e.T133666A54304631. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T133666A54304631.en.
  2. ^ a b c Hoeksema, Bert (2013). "Acropora millepora (Ehrenberg, 1834)". WoRMS. World Register of Marine Species. Retrieved 2014-01-12.
  3. ^ "Australian Faunal Directory: Acropora millepora". biodiversity.org.au. Retrieved 2022-12-17.
  4. ^ Ehrenberg, C.G. (1834). "Beiträge zur physiologischen Kenntniss der Corallenthiere im Allgemeinen und besonders des rothen Meeres, nebst einem Versuche zur physiologischen Systematik derselben". Abhandlungen der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (in Latin). 1832: 225–380. Wikidata Q115748229.
  5. ^ Winkler, Natalia; Pandolfi, John; Sampayo, Eugenia (February 2015). "Symbiodinium identity alters the temperature-dependent settlement behaviour of Acropora millepora coral larvae before the onset of symbiosis". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 282 (1801): 20142260. doi:10.1098/rspb.2014.2260. PMC 4308998. PMID 25589607.
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Acropora millepora: Brief Summary ( англиски )

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Acropora millepora Ehrenberg, 1834 (AM MA143258-5).jpg

Acropora millepora is a species of branching stony coral native to the western Indo-Pacific where it is found in shallow water from the east coast of Africa to the coasts of Japan and Australia. It was first described in 1834 by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg as Heteropora millepora.

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Acropora millepora ( шпански; кастиљски )

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 src=
A. millepora, detalle de coralitos de la colonia. Isla Normanby, Papúa Nueva Guinea
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Coralitos de A. millepora con tentáculos expandidos para alimentarse de zooplancton. Koh Phangan, Tailandia
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Rama de A. millepora con pólipos expandidos, bajo luz actínica en acuario

Acropora millepora es una especie de coral que pertenece a la familia Acroporidae, orden Scleractinia.

Su esqueleto es macizo y está compuesto de carbonato cálcico. Tras la muerte del coral, su esqueleto contribuye a la generación de nuevos arrecifes en la naturaleza, debido a que la acción del CO2 convierte muy lentamente su esqueleto en bicarbonato cálcico, sustancia ésta asimilable directamente por las colonias coralinas.

Es una especie común y ampliamente distribuida en el Indo-Pacífico tropical. Se comercializa en el mercado de acuariofilia.[1]

Morfología

La colonia crece en forma arbustiva corimbosa, o de cojín compuesto de ramas erectas, cortas y uniformes, que parten de una base, anclada lateralmente en ocasiones. Las ramas miden 55 mm de largo y 3-12 mm de diámetro. Los coralitos axiales son tubulares, y tienen 1,2-3,9 mm de diámetro exterior, y 0,4-1,6 mm de diámetro interior. Los coralitos radiales son del mismo tamaño, están uniformemente distribuidos, y cuentan con un desarrollo de su muro en forma de labio redondeado que les da aspecto de escamas, y es distintivo. El coenosteum, o parte común del esqueleto colonial, tiene un reticulado de espínulas simples en los espacios entre coralitos.[3][4]

Los pólipos de A. millepora son muy pequeños, y presentan unas células urticantes denominadas nematocistos, empleadas en la caza de presas microscópicas de plancton. Sus tentáculos suelen estar expandidos tanto de noche, como de día, lo que es inusual en la mayoría de los corales.[5]

A. millepora presenta los siguientes colores: verde, con las puntas de las ramas naranja, rosa salmón luminoso, naranja luminoso, o azul, verde o rosa pálidos.[6]

Adaptación funcional

Las proteínas fluorescentes juegan un papel en algunos corales como respuesta al estrés, actuando como antioxidantes. Cuando el coral es roto o herido, libera átomos de oxígeno altamente reactivos, conocidos como radicales libres, para cerrar los gases.[7]​ Pero estas moléculas poderosas pueden matar involuntariamente células del coral. El peróxido de hidrógeno, por ejemplo, es un radical libre común en los corales, y puede dañar cada parte de la célula, desde el ADN hasta las proteínas. Los corales dañados asumen resplandores brillantemente coloreados, en A. millepora aparecen en azul, mientras que en las especies de Porites son de un rosa-chicle intenso. Los corales con resplandor más brillante están mejor preparados para mantener radicales libres en las células dañadas.[8]

Alimentación

Los pólipos contienen algas simbióticas llamadas zooxantelas. Las algas realizan la fotosíntesis produciendo oxígeno y azúcares, que son aprovechados por los pólipos, y se alimentan de los catabolitos del coral (especialmente fósforo y nitrógeno).[9]​ Esto les proporciona entre el 75 y el 95 % de sus necesidades alimenticias. El resto lo obtienen atrapando plancton microscópico y materia orgánica disuelta en el agua.

Como la mayoría de corales, también son alimentadores suspensívoros, captando pequeñas partículas de materia suspendida en el agua, provenientes de varias fuentes como sedimentos suspendidos, material de detritus, excrementos de otros animales o mucus de corales. Estas partículas están expuestas a ser colonizadas por algas y bacterias, lo que aumenta su valor nutritivo. Cuando la concentración de estas partículas es alta, su ingesta puede cubrir hasta el 50 % de los requerimientos de carbón, y un tercio de los de nitrógeno, para el crecimiento de los tejidos coralinos.[5]

Reproducción

Se reproducen asexualmente mediante gemación y por fragmentación, siendo este último el modo de reproducción cuando las ramas de las colonias se rompen debido a los temporales, y sus fragmentos originan nuevas colonias. No obstante, el porcentaje de reproducción asexual por fragmentación de A. millepora es mucho menor que en otras especies,[10]​ como A. cervicornis o A. palmata, dado el pequeño tamaño de sus fragmentos, y la correlación existente entre el tamaño de un fragmento de coral separado de su colonia original y su índice de supervivencia.

Sexualmente son hermafroditas simultáneos, lo que quiere decir que las colonias generan gametos masculinos y femeninos, lanzando simultáneamente al exterior sus células sexuales, siendo por tanto la fecundación externa. El desove masivo de las colonias ocurre en verano, durante tres noches, cuando la luna está casi llena. El tamaño de la colonia no influye en el número de huevos o esperma por pólipo, ni en la cantidad de testículos por pólipo.[11]

Los huevos una vez en el exterior, permanecen a la deriva arrastrados por las corrientes varios días. En su interior contienen agentes bloqueantes de radiación ultravioleta para protegerles durante su fase planctónica.[12]​ Más tarde se forma una larva plánula[13]​ que, tras deambular por la columna de agua marina, y, según estudios de biología marina,[14]​ en un porcentaje de supervivencia que oscila entre el 18 y el 25 %, debido a factores físicos, como el viento, el oleaje o la salinidad, y biológicos, como la abundancia de predadores,[15]​ cae al fondo, se adhiere a él y comienza su vida sésil. Dado el que A. millepora necesita luz intensa, se ha observado que sus larvas tienden a asentarse en sustratos cerca de la superficie y bien iluminados. Entre el asentamiento y las larvas recién asentadas la mortalidad es muy alta. Una vez asentadas, las larvas se metamorfosean a pólipo, secretando carbonato cálcico para conformar un esqueleto, o coralito.

Posteriormente, forman la colonia mediante la división de los pólipos por gemación.

En los primeros 8 meses de vida, A. millepora tiene una tasa de mortalidad muy alta, del 86 %.[12]

Hábitat y comportamiento

 src=
Colonias de A. millepora en la Gran Barrera de Arrecifes de Australia

Suelen vivir en arrecifes de coral en zonas bien iluminadas y poco profundas, en un rango de 2 a 12 m,[1]​ aunque se reportan localizaciones desde 0 metros de profundidad, y en un rango de temperatura entre 25.48 y 28.61º C.[16]

Usualmente se encuentran en arrecifes planos intermareales, pero también en zonas submareales superficiales, como laderas superiores del arrecife y lagunas.[3][6]

Distribución geográfica

Se distribuyen en aguas tropicales del océano Indo-Pacífico, desde las costas orientales de África, incluido el mar Rojo, hasta las islas Fiyi en el Pacífico.

Es especie nativa de Arabia Saudí; Australia; Birmania; Camboya; Chagos; Comoros; Eritrea; Filipinas; Fiyi; Guam; India; Indonesia; Japón; Kiribati; Madagascar; Malasia; Islas Marianas del Norte; Islas Marshall; Mauritius; Mayotte; Micronesia; Mozambique; Nauru; Nueva Caledonia; Palaos; Papúa Nueva Guinea; Reunión; Islas Salomón; Seychelles; Singapur; Somalia; Sudáfrica; Sri Lanka; Tailandia; Taiwán (China); Tuvalu; Vanuatu; Vietnam; Yemen y Yibuti.[1]

Galería

Mantenimiento

Como norma, las Acroporas son difíciles de mantener en cautividad.

Una luz de moderada a alta satisfará a la mayoría de las colonias aclimatadas al acuario. La corriente deberá ser fuerte y alterna.

Es una especie poco agresiva con otros corales. Su rápido crecimiento en comparación con otras especies le ayuda a conseguir espacio y garantizar el acceso a la luz.

Se debe añadir micro plancton u otros preparados para animales filtradores, adaptados a sus pequeños pólipos.

Con independencia del resto de niveles de los parámetros comunes del acuario marino: salinidad, calcio, magnesio, dureza, etc., hay que mantener los fosfatos a cero y los nitratos a menos de 20 ppm. Algunos autores, con independencia de añadir oligoelementos (yodo, hierro, manganeso, etc.), recomiendan aditar estroncio hasta mantener un nivel de 10 ppm.

Se recomienda cambios de agua semanales del 5 % del volumen del acuario.

No se debe mantener en el mismo acuario junto a especies de Sinularia, ya que liberan terpinas (hidrocarburos) al agua que dañarán a la Acropora.

Conservación y amenazas

La Lista Roja de Especies Amenazadas de la Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza califica esta especie como de Casi amenazada ver 3.1, a partir de una evaluación de 2008.[1]​ No obstante, el creciente aumento de la temperatura del mar está incrementando dramáticamente la muerte de corales por blanqueo en todo los océanos, y las proyecciones actuales de los expertos auguran para todo el siglo XXI episodios anuales severos de blanqueo de corales en el 99% de los arrecifes de todo el mundo.[17]​ De hecho, recientes estudios han constatado que en 2016 ha muerto aproximadamente el 35% de los corales en 84 áreas de las secciones norte y centro de la Gran Barrera de Coral australiana, debido al blanqueo de coral producido por el aumento de la temperatura del mar.[18]​ También durante 2016, el principal arrecife de Japón, en el archipiélago de Okinawa, sufrió una decoloración por blanqueo del 70% de su extensión, y el arrecife más septentrional del mundo, situado frente a las costas de la isla japonesa de Tsushima, dónde sus aguas templadas suelen evitar episodios de blanqueo, ha sido afectado por primera vez en el 30% de su extensión, según afirma un estudio realizado en diciembre de 2016 por el Instituto Nacional de Estudios Medioambientales de Japón (NIES).[19]

A. millepora es un coral común, pero en las últimas décadas ha descendido notablemente, y en determinadas zonas continua en declive, ya que las especies del género son de las más afectadas por el blanqueo de coral producido por el calentamiento global. Y dado el que está comprobado que el aumento de la temperatura de la superficie marina supone un incremento directo de las enfermedades de los corales,[20]​ la previsión de la población global de la especie es decreciente.[1]

Se necesita más información para ayudar a la recuperación de acropóridos, incluida la supervivencia y fecundidad por edad, el reclutamiento sexual y asexual, la información demográfica , dinámica de la población juvenil, la importancia de las variables del hábitat para el reclutamiento y la supervivencia, y la ubicación de las poblaciones que muestran signos de recuperación. (Bruckner, 2002).[21]​ Se necesita más investigación sobre la etiología de la enfermedad, y la eficacia de los métodos de restauración actuales.

Las medidas recomendadas para la conservación de esta especie incluyen la investigación en taxonomía, la población, la abundancia y tendencias, el estado de la ecología y hábitat, amenazas y resistencia a las amenazas, la acción de restauración; identificación, creación y gestión de nuevas áreas protegidas; expansión de las áreas protegidas; gestión de la recuperación; y gestión de la enfermedad, y los parásitos patógenos. La propagación artificial y técnicas como la criopreservación de gametos pueden ser importantes para la conservación de la biodiversidad de corales.

A. millepora está incluida en el Apéndice II de CITES, lo que significa que en los países firmantes de este tratado se requiere un permiso, tanto para su recolección, como para su comercio.[22]​ En Estados Unidos está prohibida la recolección de corales para fines comerciales.

Referencias

  1. a b c d e f Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C. (2008). «Acropora millepora». Lista Roja de especies amenazadas de la UICN 2015.3 (en inglés). ISSN 2307-8235. Consultado el el 25 de septiembre de 2015..
  2. Hoeksema, B. (2015). Acropora millepora (Ehrenberg, 1834). Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=207023 Registro Mundial de Especies Marinas. Consultado el 25 de septiembre de 2015.
  3. a b Wallace, C.C. (1999) (en inglés) Staghorn Corals of the World: a revision of the coral genus Acropora. CSIRO, Collingwood.
  4. Veron, J.E.N. (1986) (en inglés) Corals of Australia and the Indo-Pacific. Australian Institute of Marine Science. Angus & Robertson Publishers.
  5. a b Anthony, K. (1999) (en inglés) Coral suspension feeding on fine particulate matter. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 232(1): 85-106.
  6. a b http://coral.aims.gov.au/factsheet.jsp?speciesCode=0047 AIMS: Instituto Australiano de Ciencia Marina, (en inglés) Corals of the World, ficha de A. millepora. Consultado el 26 de septiembre de 2015.
  7. Palmer CV; Modi CK; Mydlarz LD. (2009) (en inglés) Coral fluorescent proteins as antioxidants. PLoS One. 4(10): e7298.
  8. Dell'Amore C. (2009) GLOWING CORAL PHOTO: Fluorescence found to aid healing. National Geographic News [Internet],
  9. Debelius, Helmut y Baensch, Hans A. (1998) Atlas Marino. Mergus.
  10. Smith, L., T. Hughes. (1999) (en inglés) An experimental assessment of survival, re-attachment and fecundity of coral fragments. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 235, no. 1: 147-164.
  11. Hall, V. (1996) (en inglés) Reproductive strategies of modular organisms: comparative studies of reef-building corals. Ecology (Washington DC), 77, no. 3 (1996): 950-963.
  12. a b Dubinsky, Z. (1990) (en inglés) Ecosystems of the World 25: Coral Reefs. New York, NY 10010 USA: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.
  13. http://es.wiktionary.org/wiki/pl%C3%A1nula
  14. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15846048
  15. Gilmour, J. (1999) (en inglés) Experimental investigation into the effects of suspended sediment on fertilization, larval survival, and settlement in a scleractinian coral. Marine Biology (Berlin), 135, no. 3: 451-462.
  16. http://www.iobis.org/mapper/?taxon_id=397232 Sistema de Información Biogeográfica Oceánica. Consultado el 26 de septiembre de 2015.
  17. van Hooidonk, R. et al. (2016) Local-scale projections of coral reef futures and implications of the Paris Agreement. Sci. Rep. 6, 39666; doi: 10.1038/srep39666 . Disponible en línea en: https://www.nature.com/articles/srep39666
  18. https://elpais.com/elpais/2016/05/30/ciencia/1464593568_417289.html?rel=mas
  19. http://www.lasexta.com/noticias/ciencia-tecnologia/confirman-blanqueo-corales-arrecife-mas-septentrional-mundo-muchos-estan-muriendo_20170719596f0d130cf20d3cbe8ea207.html
  20. Bruno, J.F., Selig, E.R., Casey, K.S., Page, C.A., Willis, B.L., Harvell, C.D., Sweatman, H., and Melendy, A.M. (2007). Thermal stress and coral cover as drivers of coral disease outbreaks. PLoS Biology 5(6): e124. (en inglés)
  21. Bruckner, A.W. (2002) (en inglés) Proceedings of the Acropora Workshop: Potential Application of the U.S. Endangered Species Act as a Conservation Strategy.: 199. Miami, FL.
  22. http://www.cites.org

Bibliografía

  • Wallace, C.C. (1999) (en inglés) Staghorn Corals of the World: a revision of the coral genus Acropora. CSIRO, Collingwood.
  • Sprung, Julian y Delbeek, J.Charles (1997). The Reef Aquarium (en inglés). Ricordea Publishing.
  • Debelius, Helmut y Baensch, Hans A. (1998-2006). Atlas Marino. Mergus.
  • Borneman, Eric H. (2001-2009). Aquarium corals: selection, husbandry and natural history (en inglés). Microcosm. T.F.H.
  • Gosliner, Behrens & Williams. (1996) (en inglés) Coral Reef Animals of the Indo-Pacific. Sea Challengers Publishers.
  • Veron, J.E.N. (1986) (en inglés) Corals of Australia and the Indo-Pacific. Australian Institute of Marine Science. Angus & Robertson Publishers.

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Acropora millepora: Brief Summary ( шпански; кастиљски )

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 src= A. millepora, detalle de coralitos de la colonia. Isla Normanby, Papúa Nueva Guinea  src= Coralitos de A. millepora con tentáculos expandidos para alimentarse de zooplancton. Koh Phangan, Tailandia  src= Rama de A. millepora con pólipos expandidos, bajo luz actínica en acuario

Acropora millepora es una especie de coral que pertenece a la familia Acroporidae, orden Scleractinia.

Su esqueleto es macizo y está compuesto de carbonato cálcico. Tras la muerte del coral, su esqueleto contribuye a la generación de nuevos arrecifes en la naturaleza, debido a que la acción del CO2 convierte muy lentamente su esqueleto en bicarbonato cálcico, sustancia ésta asimilable directamente por las colonias coralinas.

Es una especie común y ampliamente distribuida en el Indo-Pacífico tropical. Se comercializa en el mercado de acuariofilia.​

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Acropora convexa ( француски )

добавил wikipedia FR

Acropora millepora est une espèce de coraux appartenant à la famille des Acroporidae.

Description et caractéristiques

Ce corail forme des colonies digitées en corymbe, avec des branches courtes uniformes. le corallite axial est distinctif, gros et tubulaire. Les corallites radiaux sont étroitement compactés, et tout de même la taille. Ils ont une lèvre inférieure proéminente faisant penser à des marches. Ce corail est généralement verdâtre avec les pointes plus ou moins orangées, mais parfois aussi rose ou bleu[2].

On reconnaît principalement ce corail au fait qu'il est l'un des seuls Acropora à avoir ses polypes sortis pendant la journée, lui donnant une apparence « poilue »[3].

Son nom ne doit pas le faire confondre avec les « coraux de feu » du genre Millepora.

Habitat et répartition

C'est une espèce relativement commune à faible profondeur, dans tout l'Indo-Pacifique[2].

Notes et références

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Acropora convexa: Brief Summary ( француски )

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Acropora millepora est une espèce de coraux appartenant à la famille des Acroporidae.

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Acropora millepora ( холандски; фламански )

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Acropora millepora is een rifkoralensoort uit de familie van de Acroporidae.[1] De wetenschappelijke naam van de soort is voor het eerst geldig gepubliceerd in 1834 door Ehrenberg.

Het "blauwe gen" amilCP komt van dit koraal.

Bronnen, noten en/of referenties
  1. WoRMS (2013). Acropora millepora (Ehrenberg, 1834). Geraadpleegd via: World Register of Marine Species op http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=207023
Geplaatst op:
15-03-2013
Dit artikel is een beginnetje over biologie. U wordt uitgenodigd om op bewerken te klikken om uw kennis aan dit artikel toe te voegen. Beginnetje
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Acropora millepora ( виетнамски )

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Acropora millepora là một loài san hô trong họ Acroporidae. Loài này được Ehrenberg mô tả khoa học năm 1834.

Chú thích

Tham khảo


Bài viết về Bộ San hô cứng này vẫn còn sơ khai. Bạn có thể giúp Wikipedia bằng cách mở rộng nội dung để bài được hoàn chỉnh hơn.
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Acropora millepora: Brief Summary ( виетнамски )

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Acropora millepora là một loài san hô trong họ Acroporidae. Loài này được Ehrenberg mô tả khoa học năm 1834.

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多孔軸孔珊瑚 ( кинески )

добавил wikipedia 中文维基百科
二名法 Acropora millepora
Ehrenberg, 1834

多孔軸孔珊瑚学名Acropora millepora)为軸孔珊瑚科軸孔珊瑚屬下的一个种。

参考文献

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多孔軸孔珊瑚: Brief Summary ( кинески )

добавил wikipedia 中文维基百科

多孔軸孔珊瑚(学名:Acropora millepora)为軸孔珊瑚科軸孔珊瑚屬下的一个种。

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Biology ( англиски )

добавил World Register of Marine Species
zooxanthellate

Навод

van der Land, J. (ed). (2008). UNESCO-IOC Register of Marine Organisms (URMO).

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Description ( англиски )

добавил World Register of Marine Species
Colonies are corymbose to tubular, with short branches. Redial corallites are all the same size and have prominent lower lips giving a scale-like appearance. Colour: commonly green with orange tips; also bright salmon-pink, bright orange, or pale green, blue or pink. Abundance: Common. Restricted to shallow water, usually reef flats, but also lagoons and upper reef slopes (Veron, 1986).

Навод

Roux, J.P. (2001) Conspectus of Southern African Pteridophyta. Southern African Botanical Diversity Network Report 13 Page 118 (Includes a picture).

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