The average body length of an adult West Indian manatee is approximately 3 meters but some individuals can reach a length of 4.5 meters including the tail. The average weight of these manatees ranges between 200 and 600 kg, however the largest individuals can weigh up to 1,500 kg. These upper figures are unusual in manatees and females generally reach greater lengths and weights than the males of the species. Newborns measure between 1.2 and 1.4 meters and weigh approximately 30 kg. The adults are grey or brown whereas newborns are darker, a coloration they lose at about one month.
Manatees are somewhat seal-shaped with forelimbs (flippers) adapted for a completely aquatic life and no hind limbs. Lungs extend the length of the animal's body, which is important in controlling position in the water column. Hair is distributed sparsely over the body and the surface layer of skin is continually sloughing off. This is believed to reduce the build-up of algae on their skin.
(FPL 1989, Rathbun 1990)
Range mass: 200 to 1500 kg.
Average mass: 400 kg.
Range length: 4.5 (high) m.
Average length: 3 m.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: female larger
Average basal metabolic rate: 70.0056 W.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 28.0 years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 30.0 years.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 30.0 years.
West Indian manatees are capable of withstanding large changes in salinity and move freely between freshwater and marine habitats. They can be found in shallow rivers, canals, saltwater bays, estuaries and coastal areas. Because of their extremely low metabolic rate and absence of a thick layer of insulating body fat, they are restricted to tropical and subtropical waters.
This species may inhabit clear or muddy waters. Because of their large size, manatees prefer water reaching at least 1 to 2 meters in depth. These animals are most commonly found travelling in waters 3 to 5 meters deep and waters over 6 meters are generally avoided.
If the water is deep enough and the currents are not too strong (under 5 kilometers per hour), manatees are capable of travelling large distances upstream on inland rivers. In St. John's river, manatees live up to 200 km away from the ocean. Manatees found in the Gulf of Mexico are rarely more than a kilometer from the mouth of a river.
(FPL 1989, Rathbun 1990)
Aquatic Biomes: rivers and streams; coastal
The West Indian manatee or sea cow (Trichechus manatus) is commonly found in shallow coastal areas, but can also be found in shallow rivers, estuaries, and canals. In the United States this species is concentrated around Florida in the winter months and migrates as far north as Virginia and as far west as Louisiana in summer months. The range of this species extends through the Caribbean, along the eastern coast of Central America and the northern coast of South America as far as northeastern Brazil.
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); neotropical (Native ); antarctica (Native ); atlantic ocean (Native )
The snout of West Indian manatees is bent further down than other species in this family. This may be related to the food habits of this species. West Indian manatees feed mainly on sea grasses growing on the sea floor and the orientation of the mouth aids in grasping these plants. One of the unique characteristics of manatees is their flexible split upper lip which is used to pass food to the mouth. Manatees are opportunistic feeders, eating the leaves of most plants that can be manipulated by the upper lip. Manatees may also use their flippers to dig up the roots of these plants. This variable diet is most likely necessary to meet their nutritional demands. Some manatees may also eat invertebrates and will eat fish both in captivity and in the wild.
Because of the low nutritional value of the plants consumed, manatees must graze for 6 to 8 hours a day. Each day they consume 5-10 percent of their body weight, which can be over 100 kg in a large individual. This low-nutient diet also has also contributed to the the development of low metabolic rates. Manatees can survive on 25% percent less energy than a typical mammal of similar size.
Manatees feed on abrasive plants and, as a result, their molars are continually replaced throughout life as they wear down. Hind-gut fermentation is another adaptation to the herbivorous diet of the manatee, aiding in breaking down the cellulose of the plants eaten.
(FPL 1989, Nowak 1999, Rathbun 1990)
For centuries West Indian manatees have been hunted for their meat, hide, and bones. This hunting continues in many South and Central American countries. The domestication of manatees has been suggested. Their status as an endangered species makes this an unlikely option. It has also been suggested that manatees be used as a method of aquatic weed control within their range. However, it has been shown that the amount of plant material consumed by these animals is not large enough to make this a viable option.
As the state's official marine mammal, the Florida manatee (a subspecies of Trichechus manatus) is of particular interest to tourists visiting the area.
(FPL 1989)
N/A
Perception Channels: tactile ; chemical
While manatees have no natural predators, their numbers are threatened by human activities. Because of their low reproductive rate, it is difficult for the species to rebound from a decline in numbers. Although the population in Florida has historically been hunted by Native Americans and, later, by the European inhabitants, it was never the victim of commercial hunting. In other parts of their range West Indian manatees have been exploited commercially and, in some cases, this continues. Although protection laws exist in countries such as Costa Rica and Venezuela, illegal poaching still occurs.
One of the main causes of manatee mortality is collisions with motorboats. Manatees are also killed in canal locks and found entangled in fishing nets. They are also threatened by the loss of (or damage to) sea beds due to agricultural and industrial runoff. These same pollutants have been shown to accumulate in the tissues of manatees and some could be toxic to the animals.
Manatee conservation efforts were initiated as early as the eighteenth century, when the English established Florida as a marine sanctuary for the species. In 1893 a state law was established to protect manatees. At the start of the twentieth century fines were established for the killing of a manatee. Manatees are now protected by the U.S. Marine Mammal Act (1972), the U.S. Endangered Species Act (1973), and the Florida Manatee Sanctuary Act (1978).
(Marsh 1994, Oshea 1998, Reynolds 1995, FPL 1989)
US Federal List: endangered
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: vulnerable
Although individuals of this species are largely solitary, mating herds form when a female is in estrus. These groups are made up of bulls pursuing the sexually receptive female. Courting bulls establish a dominance hierarchy for mating rights while the female attempts to avoid these males during most of her estrus cycle.
Females may attract up to 20 males, which pursue her for one week to one month.
Males reach full reproductive maturity between the ages of 9 and 10, but they are capable of mating as early as 2. Females are capable of reproduction at 4 to 5 years of age. Young females lack the skills necessary to raise calves and are less successful breeders. Most females breed successfully between the ages of 7 and 9. Gestation periods for West Indian manatees range from 12 to 14 months and calves are dependent on their mothers for about 2 years. One calf is produced at a time, however twins have been occasionally recorded. The inter-birth interval is 3 to 5 years, but this period may be shortened in the event of the early death of a calf. Calves nurse underwater from teats near the forelimbs. Calves are born with both molars and premolars and can begin consuming plants soon after birth, usually within the first 3 weeks.
The mother-young pair is the only stable, long-term association within the species. It has been suggested that the mother and her young can recognize each other after weaning and the association continues, to a certain extent, through the subadult years of the young. This long period of parental care might aid in the transfer of information about migration routes and other learned information.
(FPL 1989, Nowak 1999, Rathbun 1990)
Key Reproductive Features: gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual
Average birth mass: 32000 g.
Average gestation period: 335 days.
Average number of offspring: 1.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male: 913 days.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female: 1278 days.
This species is found in the Belizean coast mangroves ecoregion (part of the larger Mesoamerican Gulf-Caribbean mangroves ecoregion), extending along the Caribbean Coast from Guatemala, and encompassing the mangrove habitat along the shores of the Bahía de Annatique; this ecoregion continues along the Belizean coast up to the border with Mexico. The Belizean coast mangroves ecoregion includes the mainland coastal fringe, but is separate from the distinct ecoregion known as the Belizean reef mangroves which are separated from the mainland. This ecoregion includes the Monterrico Reserve in Guatemala, the estuarine reaches of the Monkey River and the Placencia Peninsula. The ecoregion includes the Burdon Canal Nature Reserve in Belize City, which reach contains mangrove forests and provides habitat for a gamut of avian species and threatened crocodiles.
Pygmy or scrub mangrove forests are found in certain reaches of the Belizean mangroves. In these associations individual plants seldom surpass a height of 150 centimetres, except in circumstances where the mangroves grow on depressions filled with mangrove peat. Many of the shrub-trees are over forty years old. In these pygmy mangrove areas, nutrients appear to be limiting factors, although high salinity and high calcareous substrates may be instrumental. Chief disturbance factors are due to hurricanes and lightning strikes, both capable of causing substantial mangrove treefall. In many cases a pronounced gap is formed by lightning strikes, but such forest gaps actually engender higher sapling regrowth, due to elevated sunlight levels and slightly diminished salinity in the gaps.
Chief mangrove tree species found in this ecoregion are White Mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa), Red Mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), Black Mangrove (Avicennia germinans); the Button Mangrove (Conocarpus erectus) is a related tree associate. Red mangrove tends to occupy the more seaward niches, while Black mangrove tends to occupy the more upland niches. Other plant associates occurring in this ecoregion are Dragonsblood Tree (Pterocarpus officinalis), Guiana-chestnut (Pachira aquatica) and Golden Leatherfern (Acrostichum aureum).
In addition to hydrological stabilisation leading to overall permanence of the shallow sea bottom, the Belizean coastal zone mangrove roots and seagrass blades provides abundant nutrients and shelter for a gamut of juvenile marine organisms. A notable marine mammal found in the shallow seas offshore is the threatened West Indian Manatee (Trichecus manatus), who subsists on the rich Turtle Grass (Thalassia hemprichii) stands found on the shallow sea floor.
Wood borers are generally more damaging to the mangroves than leaf herbivores. The most damaging leaf herbivores to the mangrove foliage are Lepidoptera larvae. Other prominent herbivores present in the ecoregion include the gasteropod Littorina angulifera and the Mangrove Tree Crab, Aratus pisonii.
Many avian species from further north winter in the Belizean coast mangroves, which boast availability of freshwater inflow during the dry season. Example bird species within or visiting this ecoregion include the Yucatan Parrot (Amazona xantholora), , Yucatan Jay (Cyanocorax yucatanicus), Black Catbird (Dumetella glabrirostris) and the Great Kiskadee (Pitangus sulfuratus)
Upland fauna of the ecoregion include paca (Agouti paca), coatimundi (Nasua narica),Baird’s Tapir (Tapirus bairdii), with Black Howler Monkey (Alouatta caraya) occurring in the riverine mangroves in the Sarstoon-Temash National Park. The Mantled Howler Monkey (Alouatta palliata) can be observed along the mangrove fringes of the Monkey River mouth and other portions of this mangrove ecoregion.
Other aquatic reptiian species within the ecoregion include Morelet's Crocodile (Crocodylus moreletti), Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas), Hawksbill Sea Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta), and Kemp’s Ridley (Lepidochelys kempi).
Conservation, education, and advocacy organization for manatees
The West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus), also known as the North American manatee, is a large, aquatic mammal native to warm coastal areas of the Caribbean, from the eastern US to northern Brazil. Living alone or in herds, it feeds on underwater plants and uses its whiskers to navigate. It is divided into two endangered subspecies, the Florida manatee (T. m. latirostris) in the US and the Antillean manatee (T. m. manatus) in the Caribbean,[8][9] both of which face pressure from habitat loss, pollution, and other human activity. The West Indian manatee is the largest of the sirenians (order Sirenia), a group of large aquatic mammals that includes the dugong, other manatees, and the extinct Steller's sea cow.
Manatees are herbivores, have developed vocal communication abilities, and are covered in highly sensitive whiskers (called vibrissae) that are used for feeding and navigation.[10] In breeding season, several males form mating herds around an individual female; on average, one calf is born to a female manatee every two to three years.[11]
In the 1970s, the West Indian manatee was listed as endangered in the United States under the Endangered Species Act, when there were only several hundred left.[12] The decades since have witnessed significant efforts to protect this species from natural and human threats, particularly collisions with watercraft.[13] In 2017, the US changed the classification to threatened, citing a substantial increase in the total population.[12][14]
The average West Indian manatee is about 2.7–3.5 m (8.9–11.5 ft) long and weighs 200–600 kg (440–1,320 lb), with females generally larger than males.[15] The largest individual on record weighed 1,655 kg (3,649 lb) and measured 4.6 m (15 ft) long.[16][17] Manatees are estimated to live 50 years or more in the wild,[11] and one captive Florida manatee, Snooty, lived for 69 years (1948–2017).[18]
Since manatees are mammals, they breathe air, have warm blood, and produce milk. Like the other sirenians, the West Indian manatee has adapted fully to aquatic life, having no hind limbs. Instead of hind limbs, the manatee has a spatula-like paddle for propulsion in the water. Manatees have evolved streamlined bodies which lack external ear flaps, thus decreasing resistance in the aquatic environment. Pelage cover is sparsely distributed across the body, which may play a role in reducing the build-up of algae on their thick skin. Manatee skin is gray but can vary in coloration due to algae and other biota, like barnacles, that opportunistically live on manatees. Scar tissue on manatees is white and persists for decades, allowing for easy identification. The Florida manatee has three to four nails on each flipper.[19]
The West Indian manatee has a prehensile snout, like their relative the elephant, for grabbing vegetation and bringing it into their mouths. Manatees have six to eight molariform teeth in each jaw quadrant. These molariform teeth are generated at the back of the mouth and slowly migrate towards the front of the mouth, at a rate of 1–2 mm per month, where they then fall out. This tooth ‘conveyor belt’ provides unlimited tooth production which is beneficial for the manatee which feeds on vegetation four to eight hours per day and consumes 5-10% of its body weight per day. Manatees have 3–5 cm hairs that cover their whole body and provide somatosensory information. Manatee bones are dense and solid which allows them to act as ballast and promote negative buoyancy. This helps counteract the positive buoyancy which comes from their high fat content. These two buoyancy counterparts, along with air in the lungs, helps manatees achieve neutral buoyancy in the water. This makes breathing, foraging, and swimming easier for the manatee. Manatees are unique, compared to other mammals, in that they have a longitudinally oriented diaphragm that is split in half to form two hemidiaphragms. Each hemidiaphragm is capable of independent muscular contractions.[19]
The West Indian manatee inhabits mostly shallow coastal areas, including rivers and estuaries. Manatees can withstand large changes in salinity and are found in both freshwater and saltwater.[11] Manatees' extremely low metabolic rate and lack of a thick layer of insulating body fat limits them to locations with warm waters, including tropical regions.
The Florida subspecies is primarily found along the Florida coast, but has been spotted as far north as Dennis, Massachusetts, as well as along the Gulf Coast of Texas.[20] Concerning their forays inland, a manatee was once spotted in the Wolf River (near where it enters the Mississippi) in Memphis, Tennessee, in 2006: a distance of over 700 river miles from the Gulf of Mexico.[21] The Antillean subspecies has a sparse distribution throughout the Caribbean, ranging as far north as Mexico and as far south as Brazil.[22][23]
An analysis of mitochondrial DNA patterns indicates there are actually three primary geographic groups of the West Indian manatee: (i) Florida and the Greater Antilles; (ii) Mexico, Central America and northern South America; and (iii) northeastern South America.[24][25]
The seasonal distribution of the West Indian manatee varies with water temperatures. Temperatures below approximately 20 °C (68 °F) increase the risk of cold-induced stress or mortality for manatees.[11][26] Consequently, Florida manatees seek out warm-water refuges during the winter, concentrated primarily along the Florida peninsula.[27] Many of these refuges are artificial, created by the runoff from nearby power plants.[28] In contrast, the Antillean manatee is less susceptible to cold-induced stress due to the warmer waters across its range.
Florida manatees inhabit the most northern limit of sirenian habitats. There are four recognized subpopulations of the Florida manatee, termed the Northwest, Southwest, Atlantic Coast and St. John's River populations.[29] Large concentrations of Florida manatees are located in the Crystal River[30] and Blue Springs regions in central and north Florida. The Antillean manatee is sparsely distributed throughout the Caribbean and the northwestern Atlantic Ocean, from Mexico, east to the Greater Antilles, and south to Brazil. Populations can also be found in The Bahamas, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana, Trinidad, Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica, Curaçao, Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, Belize, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Jamaica and Puerto Rico. It is possibly extirpated from the Turks and Caicos Islands, and definitively so from all the Lesser Antilles except Trinidad and Curaçao. Its presence in Haiti is uncertain.[14]
Because manatees evolved in habitats without natural predators, they lack predator avoidance behavior. The large size and low metabolic rates of manatees lends to their capacity for long and deep dives, as well as their relative lack of speed. Manatees are frequently solitary creatures, but they do aggregate at warm-water habitats during the winter and during the formation of breeding herds.[11] In spite of their docile demeanor, due to their large size the West Indian manatee has nearly no natural predators in its native environment. American alligators and American crocodiles have been suspected to on occasion take a manatee.[31][32] A dying manatee was discovered in Puerto Rico, wounded by a large shark bite thought to be inflicted by either a tiger shark or bull shark.[33] It is projected that large sharks may threaten manatees occasionally but rarely enter the manatee's brackish habitats, whereas marine mammals in more direct coastal oceanic waters are well known to be highly vulnerable to sharks and orcas.[34]
Manatees have been shown to form large mating herds when males come across estrous females, indicating that males may be able to sense estrogen or other chemical indicators.[35][36] Manatees can communicate information to each other through their vocalization patterns.[37] Sex and age-related differences are apparent in the vocalization structure of common squeaks and screeches in adult males, adult females, and juveniles.[38][39][40] This may be an indication of vocal individuality among manatees.[39] An increase in manatee vocalization after a vocal playback stimulus shows that they may be able to recognize another manatee's individual voice.[39] This behavior in manatees is found mostly between mother and calf interactions.[41] However, vocalization can still be commonly found in a variety of social interactions within groups of manatees, which is similar to other aquatic mammals.[41] When communicating in noisy environments, manatees that are in groups experience the same Lombard effect as humans do; where they will involuntary increase their vocal effort when communicating in loud environments.[42] Based on acoustic and anatomical evidence, mammalian vocal folds are assumed to be the mechanism for sound production in manatees.[43] Manatees also eat other manatees' feces; it is assumed that they do this to gather information about reproductive status or dominance, indicating the important role chemoreception plays in the social and reproductive behavior of manatees.[35]
Manatees are obligate herbivores that feed on over 60 species of aquatic plants in both fresh and salt water. Seagrass is a staple of the manatee diet, particularly in coastal areas.[44][45][46] In addition, when the tide is high enough, they will also feed on grasses and leaves.[47] Manatees typically graze for five or more hours per day, consuming anywhere from 4% to 10% of their body weight in wet vegetation per day, though the exact amount depends on their body size and activity level.[48] Because manatees feed on abrasive plants, their molars are often worn down and are replaced many times throughout their lives, thus earning the nickname "marching molars." The molar teeth are similar in shape, but of varying sizes. Manatees do not have incisors; these have been replaced by horny gingival plates.[49]
Manatees are nonruminants with an enlarged hindgut. Unlike other hindgut fermenters, such as the horse, manatees efficiently extract nutrients, particularly cellulose, from the aquatic plants in their diet. Manatees have a large gastrointestinal tract with contents measuring about 23% of its total body mass. In addition, the passage rate of food is very long (about seven days).[50] This slow process increases the digestibility of their diet. It is suggested that chronic fermentation may also provide additional heat and is correlated with their low metabolic rate.[47]
Manatees have sensitive tactile hairs that cover their bodies and faces called whiskers or vibrissae. Each individual hair is a vibrissal apparatus called a follicle-sinus complex. Vibrissae are blood filled sinuses bound by a dense connective tissue capsule with sensitive nerve endings that provides haptic feedback to the manatee.[10]
Usually vibrissae are found on the facial regions of terrestrial and non-sirenian aquatic animals and are called whiskers. Manatees, however, have vibrissae all over their bodies. The vibrissae located in their facial region are roughly 30 times denser than the vibrissae on the rest of their body. Their mouth consists of very mobile prehensile lips which are used for grasping food and objects. The vibrissae on these lips are turned outward during grasping and are used in locating vegetation. Their oral disks also contain vibrissae which have been classified as bristle-like hairs that are used in nongrasping investigation of objects and food.[51][52]
Manatee vibrissae are so sensitive that they are able to perform active touch discrimination of textures. Manatees also use their vibrissae to navigate the turbid waterways of their environment. Research has indicated that they are able to use these vibrissae to detect hydrodynamic stimuli in the same way that fish use their lateral line system.[10]
Male manatees reach sexual maturity at 3–4 years of age, while females reach sexual maturity at 3–5 years of age.[53][11] Manatees appear capable of breeding throughout their entire adult life, although most females first breed successfully at ages 7–9. Breeding occurs in ephemeral mating herds, where several males aggregate around an estrous female and compete for access to her.[54] Larger males, presumably older, have been observed to dominate mating herds and are likely responsible for most successful copulation events.[55]
The gestation period in manatees lasts for 12–14 months, after which they give birth to one calf at a time, or rarely twins.[55] When a calf is born, it usually weighs 60–70 lb (27–32 kg) and is 4.0–4.5 ft (1.2–1.4 m) long. Manatees do not form permanent pair bonds and the male contributes no parental care to the calf, which remains with the mother for up to two years prior to weaning. A single female can reproduce once every 2–3 years.[11] Wild manatees have been documented producing offspring into their late 30s, and a female captive manatee has given birth in her 40s.[56]
The West Indian manatee has been included on the U.S. Endangered Species List since the 1970s. In October 2007, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) assessed the West Indian manatee as vulnerable, and both the Florida and Antillean subspecies as endangered.[57] The full species and both subspecies qualified for their respective classifications due to a combination of a low number of mature individuals, and a significant projected decline in total population numbers over the next two generations (about 20 years per generation in manatees). Similarly, NatureServe considers both the Florida subspecies and the species as a whole as "Imperiled".[58][59]
The Florida and Antillean subspecies face different threats, though some overlap. The largest causes of Florida manatee deaths can be attributed to collisions with watercraft, the loss of warm-water habitat, high perinatal mortality, entanglements and ingestion of debris, pollution, habitat loss, and harmful algae blooms (HABs), such as red tide.[60][61][62] Antillean manatees face severe habitat fragmentation,[63] as well as continued pressure from illegal hunting.[64] In some countries, like Belize, collisions with watercraft are on the rise as tourism grows.[65][66]
The 2017 decision to reclassify the West Indian manatee from endangered to threatened under the Endangered Species Act cited increases in the populations of both subspecies.[14] The decision was not without controversy, however: according to Save the Manatee Club, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service failed to adequately consider data from 2010 to 2016, during which time manatees suffered from unprecedented mortality events linked to habitat pollution, dependence on artificial warm water sources, and record deaths from watercraft strikes.[67] The official notice of the reclassification made clear that, even with the downlisting, all federal protections for the West Indian manatee under the Endangered Species Act would remain in place.[12] The West Indian manatee is also protected by the Florida Manatee Sanctuary Act of 1978[68] and the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972.
A 1997 population viability analysis of the Florida manatee projected a 44% chance of extinction within the next 1,000 years without improvements in habitat conditions and new protective regulations.[69] Since then, prospects for the subspecies have improved. In 2016, the U.S. Geological Survey collaborated with the Florida Fish and Wildlife Service to re-evaluate the status of the Florida manatee under the Core Biological Model, which is used to estimate population viability. This assessment analyzed total population on the east and west coasts of Florida and estimated that the likelihood of either population falling under 500 adults within 100 years was about 0.42%.[70] The projected improvement of population numbers and stability is contingent on continued intervention and monitoring efforts.
Over 20% of manatee mortalities per year are a result of watercraft collisions.[71] Between 1985 and 2017 53% of adult manatee mortalities were the result of boat strikes.[62] 96% of adult Florida manatee carcasses have scars from a boat collision with some individuals showing signs of 10 or more boat strikes.[72] Manatees can hear boats, but they oftentimes do not have enough time to get out of the way of a fast approaching boat. A boat going at a slower speed gives the manatee more time to react and move out of the way. [73][74] Manatees respond to approaching vessels by orienting towards deeper waters and increasing their speed,[75][76] but they are nevertheless frequently struck as they don't have the ability to swim very fast and in shallow habitat they oftentimes don't have anywhere to go to get out of the way. Over half of all watercraft deaths are caused by the impact trauma from the hull of a fast-speeding boat, whereas the remaining percentage is caused by the boat propeller.[77] Aerial surveys of Florida manatee and boat distribution have been conducted to map the areas in which collisions are most likely to occur, accounting for environmental and seasonal factors.[78] Watercraft can frequently avoid hitting manatees simply by reducing speed, allowing time for the manatee to escape out of range.[79] Despite improvements in modeling and changes to local regulations, manatee mortalities from watercraft collisions continue to rise with an all-time high of 137 recorded deaths in 2019.[80]
Projected long-term loss of warm-water habitats presents a significant risk to manatees, who are unable to tolerate temperatures lower than 20 °C (68 °F) for prolonged periods of time.[81][19] Florida manatees frequently congregate around natural warm-water springs, as well as the warm discharge given off by power plants throughout the winter months. However, as older plants are replaced with more energy-efficient structures, manatees could become at risk of cold-induced death due to reduced availability of warm-water refuges.[82][83][84][85] Manatees exhibit high site fidelity and can recall previous refuge sites to which they frequently return in successive winters. Some conservationists fear that manatees may become overly reliant on warm-water locations generated by power plants that may shut down soon.[86][87] Natural warm-water springs face problems from over-pumping of groundwater for human consumption, reduced spring flow, and nutrient pollution. In addition, some springs that were historically accessible to manatees are blocked off by dams or other structures.[84][88][89] In areas where manatees lack access to power plants or natural warm springs, they instead seek out natural deep water zones that passively remain above tolerable temperatures.[90]
Harmful algae blooms are an additional threat to manatees.[91][92] Red tide is a common name for algal blooms, deriving its distinctive color from pigmentation molecules in the algae. The blooms produce brevetoxins which are potentially fatal to marine life. Most manatee deaths from red tide occur when manatees inhale the toxins, or ingest the toxins when consuming seagrass, their primary food source.[93] During a 1996 epizootic more than 150 manatees died from red tide exposure.[94] Although manatees can survive exposure to red tide if rescued and rehabilitated in time, researchers fear that there might be long-term effects from sublethal red tide exposure, which can affect the manatee's immune system through reduced lymphocyte proliferation response.[95] In addition to red tide, blue/green and brown algae blooms triggered by excessive nutrient pollution from fertilizer, runoff, and leaking septic tanks can cloud the water. This results in seagrasses dying off since seagrasses and aquatic plants need light to photosynthesize. Manatees in turn may not be able to find sufficient food sources, which can lead to starvation.[96][97][98][99][100][101] Manatees have experienced several Unusual Mortality Events (UMEs) over the years, which are usually related to either cold-stress syndrome, or brevetoxicosis from red tide. A current UME is ongoing along the Atlantic coast of Florida and is most likely related to a shortage in food sources.[102][103]
Manatees can easily get entangled in monofilament fishing line, crab traps, and other debris, which can lead to the loss of flippers and severe body wraps. In addition, they may also ingest a variety of debris, such as plastics, cloth, fishing gear, and other items.[104][105][106] Manatees can also get crushed by flood control structures and locks and may get entrapped behind weirs or other structures, especially after heavy rainfall. Some manatees have gotten trapped in culverts and pipes and needed intervention.[107]
There is relatively little data on the Antillean manatee compared to its Florida counterpart. Phylogenetic studies on the Antillean manatee have revealed low genetic diversity among its populations, likely due to limitations on dispersal.[108][109] Captive breeding, as well as the rehabilitation of manatee calves discovered without their mothers nearby, can supplement local conservation strategies, but populations are nevertheless at risk of inbreeding depression and local extinction.[110][111]
Whereas the population trends of the Florida manatee are relatively well monitored, population data for the Antillean manatee is sparse due to its patchy distribution, as well as the relative turbidity and low levels of light in its habitat which can mitigate the effectiveness of aerial or sonar-based surveys, often resulting in inaccurate or erroneous measurements.[112][113] A 2016 study on the Antillean manatee population of Brazil found a potential range for current population size between 485 and 2,221 individuals.[114] The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimated in 2017 that as many as 6,782 individuals might exist in the Antillean subspecies, but these results rely in large part on personal anecdotes and may overestimate the true population number.[14] A 2012 study of the Antillean population documented significant human-related causes of mortality, and projected that if the share of human-caused manatee deaths per year rose to 5% or more, the population would face a severe decline and eventual extinction.[63]
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link) {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: url-status (link) The West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus), also known as the North American manatee, is a large, aquatic mammal native to warm coastal areas of the Caribbean, from the eastern US to northern Brazil. Living alone or in herds, it feeds on underwater plants and uses its whiskers to navigate. It is divided into two endangered subspecies, the Florida manatee (T. m. latirostris) in the US and the Antillean manatee (T. m. manatus) in the Caribbean, both of which face pressure from habitat loss, pollution, and other human activity. The West Indian manatee is the largest of the sirenians (order Sirenia), a group of large aquatic mammals that includes the dugong, other manatees, and the extinct Steller's sea cow.
Manatees are herbivores, have developed vocal communication abilities, and are covered in highly sensitive whiskers (called vibrissae) that are used for feeding and navigation. In breeding season, several males form mating herds around an individual female; on average, one calf is born to a female manatee every two to three years.
In the 1970s, the West Indian manatee was listed as endangered in the United States under the Endangered Species Act, when there were only several hundred left. The decades since have witnessed significant efforts to protect this species from natural and human threats, particularly collisions with watercraft. In 2017, the US changed the classification to threatened, citing a substantial increase in the total population.
